on the exact same day, at the exact same moment,

二組のカップルが

each conceiving a baby, OK?

1979年の中頃

So two couples each conceiving one baby.

まったく同じ日 同じ瞬間に

Now I don't want you to spend too much time imagining the conception,

赤ちゃんを授かったとします

because if you do, you're not going to listen to me,

二組共 赤ちゃんができたのです

so just imagine that for a moment.

受胎した過程は あまり考えないでください

And in this scenario, I want to imagine that, in one case,

考えすぎると

the sperm is carrying a Y chromosome,

うわの空になりますから

meeting that X chromosome of the egg.

想像を少しだけしてください

And in the other case, the sperm is carrying an X chromosome,

一組のカップルでは

meeting the X chromosome of the egg.

Y染色体をもつ精子が

Both are viable; both take off.

卵子のX染色体と

We'll come back to these people later.

出会うとします

So I wear two hats in most of what I do.

もう1つのカップルでは

As the one hat, I do history of anatomy.

X染色体をもつ精子が

I'm a historian by training, and what I study in that case

卵子のX染色体と出会います

is the way that people have dealt with anatomy --

どちらも生存可能としましょう

meaning human bodies, animal bodies --

この話は また後ほど

how they dealt with bodily fluids, concepts of bodies;

わたしは二つの事柄に

how have they thought about bodies.

携わっています

The other hat that I've worn in my work is as an activist,

一つは

as a patient advocate --

解剖学の歴史です

or, as I sometimes say, as an impatient advocate --

専門は歴史なので

for people who are patients of doctors.

この場合は

In that case, what I've worked with is people who have body types

今までの人間や動物の体の扱われ方を

that challenge social norms.

研究しています

So some of what I've worked on, for example,

体液の扱い方や 体という概念

is people who are conjoined twins --

体に対する考え方などです

two people within one body.

もう一つは

Some of what I've worked on is people who have dwarfism --

患者の代弁をする

so people who are much shorter than typical.

活動をしています

And a lot of what I've worked on is people who have atypical sex --

医者にかかる患者のために

so people who don't have the standard male or the standard female body types.

尽力しています

And as a general term, we can use the term "intersex" for this.

今まで活動してきたのは

Intersex comes in a lot of different forms.

社会において逸脱するような

I'll just give you a few examples of the types of ways you can have sex

体型をもつ方々の活動です

that isn't standard for male or female.

例えば

So in one instance,

結合双生児

you can have somebody who has an XY chromosomal basis,

二人の体が結合している人たちや

and that SRY gene on the Y chromosome

小人症の人たち

tells the proto-gonads, which we all have in the fetal life,

つまり 極めて身長の低い人たちです

to become testes.

少数派の性別をもつ人たちの

So in the fetal life, those testes are pumping out testosterone.

取り組みをしてきました

But because this individual lacks receptors to hear that testosterone,

標準的な男性 もしくは

the body doesn't react to the testosterone.

女性の体型をもたない人たちです

And this is a syndrome called androgen insensitivity syndrome.

半陰陽と呼ばれているもので

So lots of levels of testosterone, but no reaction to it.

様々な状態があります

As a consequence, the body develops more along the female typical path.

標準的な男性や

When the child is born, she looks like a girl.

女性ではない例を

She is a girl, she is raised as a girl.

いくつかあげてみましょう

And it's often not until she hits puberty and she's growing and developing breasts,

例えば

but she's not getting her period,

XY染色体をもつ人のY染色体上にある

that somebody figures out something's up here.

SRY遺伝子は 胎児のときに

And they do some tests and figure out

性腺から

that, instead of having ovaries inside and a uterus,

精巣をつくる指示を出します

she has testes inside, and she has a Y chromosome.

精巣から男性ホルモンが分泌されますが

Now what's important to understand

この個人の場合は 男性ホルモン受容体が欠けているため

is you may think of this person as really being male,

体が男性ホルモンを感知せず

but they're really not.

反応しません

Females, like males,

これはアンドロゲン不応症と呼ばれています

have in our bodies something called the adrenal glands.

男性ホルモンがどんどん出ても まったく感知しません

They're in the back of our body.

その結果 体は女性の体のように

And the adrenal glands make androgens, which are a masculinizing hormone.

発達します

Most females like me -- I believe myself to be a typical female --

出生時は女児のようなので

I don't actually know my chromosomal make-up,

女の子として育てられます

but I think I'm probably typical --

多くの場合 思春期になり

most females like me are actually androgen-sensitive.

発育して 胸が大きくなっても

We're making androgen, and we're responding to androgens.

初潮がないために

The consequence is that somebody like me

何かがおかしいと気づきます

has actually had a brain exposed to more androgens

検査をすると

than the woman born with testes who has androgen insensitivity syndrome.

卵巣や子宮の代わりに

So sex is really complicated --

精巣があって Y染色体をもっていることがわかります

it's not just that intersex people

ここで重要なのは

are in the middle of all the sex spectrum --

この人は本来男性だと思うかもしれませんが

in some ways, they can be all over the place.

そうではないのです

Another example:

女性も男性も

a few years ago I got a call from a man who was 19 years old,

副腎という器官が

who was born a boy, raised a boy,

体の後ろ側にあります

had a girlfriend, had sex with his girlfriend,

副腎はアンドロゲン

had a life as a guy,

つまり 男性ホルモンを分泌します

and had just found out that he had ovaries and a uterus inside.

わたしの染色体構造は

What he had was an extreme form

標準的だと思いますが

of a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

わたしを含むほとんどの女性は

He had XX chromosomes,

アンドロゲンの影響を受けています

and in the womb, his adrenal glands were in such high gear

アンドロゲンを分泌し 反応する結果

that it created, essentially, a masculine hormonal environment.

わたしたちのような女性の脳は

And as a consequence, his genitals were masculinized,

アンドロゲン不応症で 精巣をもって生まれた女性よりも

his brain was subject to the more typical masculine component of hormones.

より多くのアンドロゲンに

And he was born looking like a boy -- nobody suspected anything.

さらされることになります

And it was only when he had reached the age of 19

性別とは非常に複雑なので

that he began to have enough medical problems from menstruating internally,

半陰陽の人たちは性別の中間にいると

that doctors figured out that, in fact, he was female, internally.

位置づけることはできません

OK, so just one more quick example of a way you can have intersex.

他の事例です

Some people who have XX chromosomes develop what are called ovotestis,

数年前 19歳の男性から電話がありました

which is when you have ovarian tissue with testicular tissue wrapped around it.

男児として生まれ 育てられ

And we're not exactly sure why that happens.

彼女がいて その女の子と性交渉もあり

So sex can come in lots of different varieties.

男性として生きてきたのに

The reason that children with these kinds of bodies --

卵巣と子宮があることがわかったのです

whether it's dwarfism, or it's conjoined twinning,

先天性副腎過形成と呼ばれるもので

or it's an intersex type --

彼は その極度のケースでした

are often "normalized" by surgeons

彼はXX染色体をもち

is not because it actually leaves them better off in terms of physical health.

子宮にいる間

In many cases, people are actually perfectly healthy.

彼の副腎はあまりに活発だったので

The reason they're often subject to various kinds of surgeries

男性ホルモン環境をつくりあげてしまいました

is because they threaten our social categories.

その結果 男性器が形成され

Our system has been based typically on the idea

脳は より典型的な

that a particular kind of anatomy comes with a particular identity.

男性ホルモン要素に反応していたのです

So we have the concept that what it means to be a woman

出生時はまるで男児で 誰も疑いはしませんでした

is to have a female identity;

それが19歳になったとき

what it means to be a black person is, allegedly, to have an African anatomy

医学的問題を抱え始めたのです

in terms of your history.

体内で月経がはじまり

And so we have this terribly simplistic idea.

内面的には女性だと医師がつきとめました

And when we're faced with a body

では 手短に

that actually presents us something quite different,

半陰陽の別の例を出します

it startles us in terms of those categorizations.

XX染色体をもつ人に

So we have a lot of very romantic ideas in our culture about individualism.

卵精巣が発達する人がいます

And our nation's really founded on a very romantic concept of individualism.

卵巣組織が精巣組織で

You can imagine how startling then it is

覆われているのです

when you have children who are born who are two people inside of one body.

理由は完全にはわからないものの

Where I ran into the most heat from this most recently

性別とは 多様なものになり得るのです

was last year when South African runner, Caster Semenya,

このような体をもつ子どもたちが

had her sex called into question at the International Games in Berlin.

小人症であっても

I had a lot of journalists calling me, asking me,

結合双生児であっても

"Which is the test they're going to run

半陰陽者であっても

that will tell us whether or not Caster Semenya is male or female?"

しばしば 外科的な

And I had to explain to the journalists there isn't such a test.

整形手術を行う理由は

In fact, we now know that sex is complicated enough

健康が向上するからでは ありません

that we have to admit:

彼らは 極めて健康であることが多いのです

Nature doesn't draw the line for us between male and female,

様々な手術をすることが多い理由は

or between male and intersex and female and intersex;

社会的分類があることや

we actually draw that line on nature.

体の特徴で アイデンティティが決まるという

So what we have is a sort of situation where the farther our science goes,

概念に基づいているためです

the more we have to admit to ourselves that these categories

女性であるには

that we thought of as stable anatomical categories,

女性の特性がなくてはならない

that mapped very simply to stable identity categories

黒人であるには

are a lot more fuzzy than we thought.

家系がアフリカ人の体でなければならない

And it's not just in terms of sex.

我々は そんな概念をもっています

It's also in terms of race,

その概念があまりにも単純すぎるため

which turns out to be vastly more complicated

きわめて差異のある体を見ると

than our terminology has allowed.

そのような分類ができなくなり

As we look, we get into all sorts of uncomfortable areas.

戸惑ってしまうのです

We look, for example, about the fact

アメリカは個人主義という

that we share at least 95 percent of our DNA with chimpanzees.

理想主義的な

What are we to make of the fact

概念のもとに築かれています

that we differ from them only, really, by a few nucleotides?

体ひとつで 二人の子どもが生まれた場合

And as we get farther and farther with our science,

どれだけ戸惑うのか

we get more and more into a discomforted zone,

想像できるでしょう

where we have to acknowledge that the simplistic categories we've had

最近の論争では去年 南アフリカのランナー

are probably overly simplistic.

キャスター・セメンヤが世界陸上で

So we're seeing this in all sorts of places in human life.

性別を疑われました

One of the places we're seeing it, for example,

わたしはジャーナリストから電話で質問されました

in our culture, in the United States today,

“キャスター・セメンヤの性別を

is battles over the beginning of life and the end of life.

判別する検査は

We have difficult conversations

どの検査ですか？”

about at what point we decide a body becomes a human,

そんな検査はないと答えました

such that it has a different right than a fetal life.

性別とは複雑であると

We have very difficult conversations nowadays --

わかっている今

probably not out in the open as much as within medicine --

自然界は男女の区別や

about the question of when somebody's dead.

男 半陰陽 女の区別をしないことを

In the past, our ancestors never had to struggle so much

我々は認めなくてはいけません

with this question of when somebody was dead.

線を引いているのは私たちです

At most, they'd stick a feather on somebody's nose,

私たちには

and if it twitched, they didn't bury them yet.

科学が進歩すればするほど

If it stopped twitching, you bury them.

認めなくてはいけないものがあります

But today, we have a situation

アイデンティティの分類として

where we want to take vital organs out of beings

位置づけられたものは

and give them to other beings.

体の構造を分類する揺るぎないものだと

And as a consequence,

思われていたのに

we have to struggle with this really difficult question

予想以上に曖昧だったのです

about who's dead,

性別だけではなく

and this leads us to a really difficult situation

人種に関しても

where we don't have such simple categories as we've had before.

用語が意図する以上に

Now you might think that all this breaking-down of categories

ずっと複雑です

would make somebody like me really happy.

やっかいな問題は多々あります

I'm a political progressive, I defend people with unusual bodies,

例えば 人間とチンパンジーは

but I have to admit to you that it makes me nervous.

DNAの少なくとも95%が

Understanding that these categories

同じです

are really much more unstable than we thought makes me tense.

少ししか変わりがないという事実から

It makes me tense from the point of view of thinking about democracy.

何を考えればいいのでしょうか

So in order to tell you about that tension,

科学が より発達すればするほど

I have to first admit to you a huge fan of the Founding Fathers.

より困惑する域へと近づき

I know they were racists, I know they were sexist,

単純な分類が

but they were great.

あまりにも単純であることを

I mean, they were so brave and so bold and so radical in what they did,

認めなくてはいけなくなります

that I find myself watching that cheesy musical "1776" every few years,

これは

and it's not because of the music, which is totally forgettable.

あらゆる場面で見られます

It's because of what happened in 1776 with the Founding Fathers.

例えば 我が国アメリカでは

The Founding Fathers were, for my point of view,

命の始まりと終わりに関する

the original anatomical activists,

論争がおきています

and this is why.

胎児とは別の権利があるという点から

What they rejected was an anatomical concept

どの時点で人が人間になるのかを決めるのか

and replaced it with another one

難しい対話がなされています

that was radical and beautiful and held us for 200 years.

また 人はいつ死亡するのかという問題も

So as you all recall,

医学界ほど広がりは見せていませんが

what our Founding Fathers were rejecting was a concept of monarchy,

難しい問題です

and the monarchy was basically based on a very simplistic concept of anatomy.

人がいつ死亡したのかという問題は

The monarchs of the old world didn't have a concept of DNA,

昔はこれほどまで難しくはありませんでした

but they did have a concept of birthright.

鼻の下を羽根で触ったとき

They had a concept of blue blood.

ぴくっと動けば 埋葬せず

They had the idea that the people who would be in political power

動きが止まれば 埋葬したものですが

should be in political power because of the blood being passed down

今は 生命をつかさどる器官を

from grandfather to father to son and so forth.

取り出して 他者へと

The Founding Fathers rejected that idea,

移植するようになりました

and they replaced it with a new anatomical concept,

その結果

and that concept was "all men are created equal."

人の死にまつわる論争が

They leveled that playing field and decided the anatomy that mattered

繰り広げられるのです

was the commonality of anatomy, not the difference in anatomy,

これは 昔のような単純な分類では通用しない

and that was a really radical thing to do.

非常に難しい状況をつくりあげます

Now they were doing it in part

細かく分類することで わたしのような人間が

because they were part of an Enlightenment system

喜ぶと思うかもしれません

where two things were growing up together.

わたしたちは特異な体を持つ人々のために活動をしていますが

And that was democracy growing up,

このようなことは心配の種です

but it was also science growing up at the same time.

このような分類が想像以上に

And it's really clear, if you look at the history of the Founding Fathers,

不安定であることが

a lot of them were very interested in science,

民主主義の立場から見て

and they were interested in the concept of a naturalistic world.

気がかりです

They were moving away from supernatural explanations,

気がかりになることを説明しましょう

and they were rejecting things like a supernatural concept of power,

わたしは アメリカ合衆国建国の父たちの大ファンです

where it transmitted because of a very vague concept of birthright.

彼らは人種差別や性差別をしました