Name: 弔辞 (Loanword)
Uploaded: 2021-01-14T05:45:29.000Z
Duration: 21 min 9 s
Description: VoiceTubeの動画で発音を聞きながら英語表現を覚えよう！学べる英語：

A loanword is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient

基礎受動態

language without translation. It is distinguished from a calque, or loan translation, where

a meaning or idiom from another language is translated into existing words or roots of

the host language. Examples of loan words in English include:

café, bazaar, and kindergarten. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German

term Lehnwort, while the term calque is a loanword from French.

Problems with the term 'loanword' Lexical adaptations are frequently in the

form of phrases, for which the term "loanword" is less apt, e.g. déjà vu, an English loan

from French. For simplicity, adopt/adoption, adapt/adaption, or lexical borrowing are thus

used by many linguists. Strictly speaking, the terms borrow and loanword,

although traditional, conflict with the ordinary meaning of those words since something is

taken from but nothing is returned to the donor languages. This metaphor is not isolated

to the concept of loanwords, but also found in the idiom "to borrow an idea," and even

in the mathematical term "borrowing" used in subtraction.

Loanwords entering a language Donor language terms frequently enter a recipient

language as a technical term in connection with exposure to foreign culture. The specific

reference point may be to the foreign culture itself or to a field of activity where the

foreign culture has a dominant role. External associations

A foreign loanword is arguably still outside the recipient language, and not yet a "loanword"

when it is fixed in the local culture. What is "exotic" varies from language to language.

Thus, English names for creatures not native to Great Britain are almost always loanwords.

Loanwords from a dominant field of activity Examples of loanwords from a dominant field

of activity: Arts – Most of the technical vocabulary

of classical music is borrowed from Italian, and that of ballet from French.

Business – English exports terms to other languages in business and technology.

Philosophy – many technical terms, including the term philosophy itself, derive from Greek

dominance in philosophy, mathematics, linguistics, economic theory and political theory in Roman

times. Examples include democracy, theory and so on.

Religion – religions may carry with them a large number of technical terms from the

language of the originating culture. For example: Arabic – caliph, hajj, jihad, Qur'an

Greek – baptisma has entered many languages, e.g. English baptism.

Hebrew – Some terms in the Hebrew Bible have been carried into other languages as

borrowings rather than translated. For example Hebrew shabbat has been borrowed into most

languages in the world: in Greek the word is Σάββατο; Latin sabbatum; Spanish

and Portuguese sábado; and in English Sabbath. The major exceptions are languages like Chinese,

Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese, where Chinese characters are used and words are often translated

rather than transliterated; for example, "Sabbath" is translated as "(peaceful) rest day" rather

than transliterated. Latin – missa and communio have entered

English as mass and communion. Sanskrit – guru

Science – medicine uses a large vocabulary of Latin terms, as a result of medieval advances

in medical science being conducted in Latin – even if some of the earliest Latin medical

texts were translations from Greek and Arabic. Loanword passing into general use

When a loanword loses foreign cultural associations it has passed into general use in the language.

This is the case with a vast number of English language terms for which a dictionary entry

will show that the etymology is French and not of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Loanword-resistant areas By contrast, function words such as pronouns,

and words referring to universal concepts, are the most static words within each language.

These function words are borrowed only in rare cases such as English they from Old Norse

þeir. Sometimes only one word from an opposite pair is borrowed, yielding an unpaired word

in the recipient language. Linguistic classification

The studies by Werner Betz, Einar Haugen, and Uriel Weinreich are regarded as the classical

theoretical works on loan influence. The basic theoretical statements all take Betz’s nomenclature

as their starting point. Duckworth enlarges Betz’s scheme by the type “partial substitution”

and supplements the system with English terms. A schematic representation of these classifications

On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen distinguishes three basic

groups of borrowings: “(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution.

[. . .]. Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation. [. . .]. Loanshifts

show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen later refined his model in a review

of Gneuss’s book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one

by Betz again. Weinreich differentiates between two mechanisms

of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound

words and phrases. Weinreich defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals

who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly,

the category ‘simple’ words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed

form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s terminology.

Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change,

or onomasiological change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch and Joachim Grzega.

The English language has often borrowed words from other cultures or languages. For example:

Some English loanwords remain relatively faithful to the donor language's phonology, even though

a particular phoneme might not exist or have contrastive status in English. For example,

the Hawaiian word ʻaʻā is used by geologists to specify lava that is relatively thick,

chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the

English pronunciation, or , contains at most one. In addition, the English spelling usually

removes the ʻOkina and macron diacritics. The majority of English affixes, such as un-,

-ing, and -ly, were present in older forms in Old English. However, a few English affixes

are borrowed. For example, the agentive suffix -er, which is very prolific, is borrowed ultimately

from Latin - arius. The English verbal suffix -ize comes from Greek -ιζειν via Latin

English loanword exports to other languages Direct borrowings, calques, or even grammatical

constructions and orthographical conventions from English are called anglicisms. This leads

to a virtual pseudo-dialect where language consists of words from two vocabularies. In

French, for example, the result of perceived over-use of English words and expressions

is called franglais. Some English terms in French include le week-end, le bifteck, and

le job or la job. Spanglish is the English influence on the Spanish language, while Denglisch

is the English influence on German, and Dunglish is the English influence on the Dutch language.

Conversely, words are oftentimes borrowed from other languages by English speakers.

For example, a straight clone from Swedish into English – like the word smörgåsbord

– is called a sveticism. Loanword transmission in the Ottoman Empire

During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire, the literary and administrative language

of the empire was Turkish, with many Persian, and Arabic loanwords, called Ottoman Turkish,

considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many such words were

exported to other languages of the empire, such as Albanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek,

Hungarian and Ladino. After the empire fell in World War I and the Republic of Turkey

was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly

founded Turkish Language Association, during which many adopted words were replaced with

new formations derived from Turkic roots. This was part of the ongoing cultural reform

of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms, which also

included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet. Turkish also has taken many words