For thousands of years, well, really probably millions of years,

our ancestors have looked up at the sky and wondered what's up there,

and they've also started to wonder,

hmm, could we be alone in this planet?

Now, I'm fortunate that I get to get paid to actually ask some of those questions,

and sort of bad news for you,

your tax dollars are paying me to try to answer some of those questions.

But then, about 10 years ago,

I was told, I mean asked,

if I would start to look at the technology to help get us off planet,

and so that's what I'm going to talk to you about today.

So playing to the local crowd,

this is what it looks like in your day-to-day life in Boston,

but as you start to go off planet, things look very, very different.

So there we are, hovering above the WGBH studios.

And here's a very famous picture of the Earthrise from the Moon,

and you can see the Earth starting to recede.

And then what I love is this picture

that was taken from the surface of Mars looking back at the Earth.

Can anyone find the Earth?

I'm going to help you out a little.

(Laughter)

Yeah.

The point of showing this is that when people start to go to Mars,

they're not going to be able to keep calling in

and be micromanaged the way people on a space station are.

They're going to have to be independent.

So even though they're up there,

there are going to be all sorts of things that they're going to need,

just like people on Earth need things like, oh, transportation,

life support, food, clothing and so on.

But unlike on Earth, they are also going to need oxygen.

They're going to have to deal with about a third of the gravity that we have here.

They're going to have to worry about habitats, power, heat, light

and radiation protection,

something that we don't actually worry about nearly as much on the Earth,

because we have this beautiful atmosphere and magnetosphere.

The problem with that is that we also have a lot of constraints.

So the biggest one for us is upmass,

and the number that I've used for years

is it costs about 10,000 dollars to launch a can of Coke into low Earth orbit.

The problem is, there you are with 10,000 dollars later,

and you're still in low Earth orbit.

You're not even at the Moon or Mars or anything else.

So you're going to have to try to figure out

how to keep the mass as low as possible so you don't have to launch it.

But on top of that cost issue with the mass,

you also have problems of storage

and flexibility and reliability.

You can't just get there and say, "Oops, I forgot to bring,"

because Amazon.com just does not deliver to Mars.

So you better be prepared.

So what is the solution for this?

And I'm going to propose to you for the rest of this talk

that the solution actually is life,

and when you start to look at life as a technology,

you realize, ah, that's it,

that's exactly what we needed.

This plant here, like every person here

and every one of your dogs and cats

and plants and so on,

all started as a single cell.

So imagine, you're starting as a very low upmass object

and then growing into something a good deal bigger.

Now, my hero Charles Darwin,

of course, reminds us that there's no such thing as a designer in biology,

but what if we now have the technology

to design biology,

maybe even design, oh, whole new life-forms

that can do things for us that we couldn't have imagined otherwise?

So years ago, I was asked to start to sell this program,

and while I was doing that,

I was put in front of a panel at NASA,

as you might sort of imagine,

a bunch of people in suits and white shirts and pencil protectors,

and I did this sort of crazy, wild,

"This is all the next great thing,"

and I thought they would be blown over,

and instead the chairman of the committee just looked at me straight in the eye,

and said, "So what's the big idea?"

So I was like, "OK, you want Star Trek?

We'll do Star Trek."

And so let me tell you what the big idea is.

We've used organisms to make biomaterials for years.

So here's a great picture taken outside of Glasgow,

and you can see lots of great biomaterials there.

There are trees that you could use to build houses.

There are sheep where you can get your wool from.

You could get leather from the sheep.

Just quickly glancing around the room, I'll bet there's no one in this room

that doesn't have some kind of animal or plant product on them,

some kind of biomaterial.

But you know what?

We're not going to take sheep and trees and stuff to Mars.

That's nuts, because of the upmass problem.

But we are going to take things like this.

This is Bacillus subtilis.

Those white dots that you see are spores.

This happens to be a bacterium that can form incredibly resistant spores,

and when I say incredibly resistant, they've proven themselves.

Bacillus subtilis spores have been flown on what was called LDEF,

Long Duration Exposure Facility, for almost six years

and some of them survived that in space.

Unbelievable, a lot better than any of us can do.

So why not just take the capabilities,

like to make wood or to make wool or spider silk or whatever,

and put them in Bacillus subtilis spores,

and take those with you off planet?

So what are you going to do when you're off planet?

Here's an iconic picture of Buzz Aldrin looking back at the Eagle

when he landed, oh, it was almost 50 years ago, on the surface of the Moon.

Now if you're going to go to the Moon for three days

and you're the first person to set foot,

yeah, you can live in a tin can,

but you wouldn't want to do that for, say, a year and a half.

So I did actually a calculation, being in California.

I looked at what the average size of a cell at Alcatraz is,

and I have news for you,

the volume in the Eagle there, in the Lunar Module,

was about the size of a cell at Alcatraz

if it were only five feet high.

So incredibly cramped living quarters.

You just can't ask a human to stay in there for long periods of time.

So why not take these biomaterials and make something?

So here's an image that a colleague of mine

who is an architect, Chris Maurer, has done of what we've been proposing,

and we'll get to the point

of why I've been standing up here holding something

that looks like a dried sandwich this whole lecture.

So we've proposed that the solution to the habitat problem on Mars

could just simply lie in a fungus.

So I'm now probably going to turn off everyone

from ever eating a mushroom again.

So let's talk about fungi for a second.

So you're probably familiar with this fruiting body of the fungus.

That's the mushroom.

But what we're interested in actually is what's beneath the surface there,

the mycelium,

which are these root hair-like structures

that are really the main part of the mushroom.

Well, it turns out you can take those --

there's a micrograph I did --

and you can put them in a mold

and give them a little food --

and it doesn't take much, you can grow these things on sawdust --

so this piece here was grown on sawdust,

and that mycelium then will fill that structure

to make something.

We've actually tried growing mycelium on Mars Simulant.

So no one's actually gone to the surface of Mars,

but this is a simulated surface of Mars,

and you can see those hair-like mycelia out there.

It's really amazing stuff.

How strong can you make these things?

Well, you know, I could give you numbers and tests and so on,

but I think that's probably the best way to describe it.

There's one of my students proving that you can do this.

To do this, then, you've got to figure out how to put it in context.

How's this actually going to happen?

I mean, this is a great idea, Lynn,

but how are you going to get from here to there?

So what we're saying is you grow up the mycelium in the lab, for example

and then you fill up a little structure, maybe a house-like structure that's tiny,

that is maybe a double-bagged sort of plastic thing, like an inflatable --

I sort of think L.L.Bean when I see this.

And then you put it in a rocket ship and you send it off to Mars.

Rocket lands,

you release the bag

and you add a little water,

and voila, you've got your habitat.

You know, how cool would that be?

And the beauty of that is you don't have to take something prebuilt.

And so our estimates are that we could save 90 percent of the mass

that NASA is currently proposing by taking up a big steel structure

if we actually grow it on site.

So let me give you another big idea.

What about digital information?

What's really interesting is you have a physical link to your parents

and they have a physical link to their parents, and so on,

all the way back to the origin of life.

You have never broken that continuum.

But the fact is that we can do that today.

So we have students every day in our labs --

students in Boston even do this --

that make up DNA sequences

and they hit the "send" button

and they send them to their local DNA synthesis company.

Now once you break that physical link

where you're sending it across town,

it doesn't matter if you're sending it across the Charles River

or if you're sending that information to Mars.

You've broken that physical link.

So then, once you're on Mars,

or across the river or wherever,

you can take that digital information,

synthesize the physical DNA,

put it maybe in another organism

and voila, you've got new capabilities there.

So again, you've broken that physical link. That's huge.

What about chemistry?

Biology does chemistry for us on Earth,

and again has for literally thousands of years.

I bet virtually everyone in this room has eaten something today

that has been made by biology doing chemistry.

Let me give you a big hint there.

What about another idea?

What about using DNA itself to make a wire?

Because again, we're trying to miniaturize everything.

DNA is really cheap.

Strawberries have a gazillion amount of DNA.

You know, you could take a strawberry with you, isolate the DNA,

and one of my students has figured out a way

to take DNA and tweak it a little bit

so that you can incorporate silver atoms in very specific places,

thus making an electrical wire.

How cool is that?

So while we're on the subject of metals,

we're going to need to use metals for things like integrated circuits.

Probably we're going to want it for some structures, and so on.

And things like integrated circuits ultimately go bad.

We could talk a lot about that, but I'm going to leave it at that,

that they do go bad,

and so where are you going to get those metals?

Yeah, you could try to mine them with heavy equipment,

but you get that upmass problem.

And I always tell people, the best way to find the metals for a new cell phone