So, the CPU has to fetch things from memory; it might be a bit of data, it might be an instruction

And it goes through the cache to try and access it.

And the cache keeps a local copy in fast memory to try and speed up the accesses

But what we didn't talk about is: What does a CPU do with what it's fetched from memory

what is it actually doing and how does it process it?

So the CPU is fetching values from memory.

We'll ignore the cache for now, because it doesn't matter if the CPU has a cache or not

it's still gonna do roughly the same things

And we're also gonna look at very old CPU's

the sort of things that are in 8-bit machines

purely because they're simpler to deal with

and simpler to see what's going on

The same idea is still applied to an ARM CPU today or an X86 chip

or whatever it is you got in your machine.

Modern CPU's use what's called the Van Neumann architecture

and what this basically means is that you have a CPU

and you have a block of memory.

And that memory is connected to the CPU by two buses

Each is just a collection of several wires that are connecting

And again we're looking at old-fashioned macines. On a modern machine it gets a bit more complicated

But the idea, the principle, is the same.

So we have an addess bus

and the idea is that the CPU can generate a number in here in binary

to access any particular value in here.

So we say that the first one is at adress 0

and we're gonna use a 6502 as an example

We'll say that the last one is at address 65535 in decimal, or FFFF in hexadecimal

So we can generate any of these numbers on 16 bits of this address bus

to access any of the individual bytes in this memory

How do we get the data between the two? Well we have another bus

which is called the data bus, which connects the two together

Now the reason why this is a Van Neumann machine

is because this memory can contain both the program

i.e. the bytes that make up the instructions that the CPU can execute

and the data

So the same block of memory contain some bytes

which contain program instructions

some bytes which contain data

And the CPU if you wanted to could treat the program as data

or treat the data as program

Well if you do that then it would probably crash

So what we've got here is an old BBC Micro using a 6502 CPU

and we're gonna just write a very, very simple machine code program

that uses

well the operation is saying just to print out the letter C for computerphile

So if you assemble it, we're using hexadecimal

we've started our program at 084C

So that's the address, were our program is being created

And our program is very simple

It loads one of the CPU's registers

which is just basically a temporary data store that you can use

and this one is called the accumulator

with the ascii code 67 which represents a capital C

and then it says: jump to the subroutine at this address

which will print out that particular character

And then we tell it we want to stop so we gotta return

from subroutine. And if we run this

and type in the address, so we're at ... 84C

then you'll see that it prints out the letter C

and then we get a prompt to carry on doing things

So our program, we write it in assembly language

which we can understand as humans

-ish, LDA: Load Accumulator JSR: Jump to subroutine

RTS: Return to subroutine

You get the idea once you've done it a few times

And the computer converts this into a series of numbers, in binary

The CPU is working in binary but to make it easier to read we display it as hexadecimal

So our program becomes: A9, 43

20 EE FF 60

That's the program we've written

And the CPU, when it runs it needs to fetch those bytes from memory

into the CPU

Now, how does it do that?

To get the first byte we need to put the address: 084C on the address bus

and a bit later on, the memory will send back the byte that represents the instruction: A9

Now, how does the CPU know where to get these instructions from?

Well, it's quite simple. Inside the CPU

there is a register, which we call the program counter, or PC on a 6502

or something like an X86 machine it's known as the instruction pointer.

And all that does is store the address to the next instruction to execute

So when we were starting up here, it would have 084C in it

That's the address to the instruction we want to execute

So when the CPU wants to fetch the instruction it's gonna execute

It puts that address on the address bus

and the memory then sends the instruction back to the CPU

So the first thing the CPU is gonna do to run our program

is to fetch the instruction

and the way it does that is by putting the address from

the program counter onto the address bus

and then fetching the actual instruction

So the memory provides it, but the CPU then reads that in

on it's input on the data bus

Now it needs to fetch the whole instruction that the CPU is gonna execute

and on the example we saw there it was relatively straightforward

because the instruction was only a byte long

Not all CPU's are that simple

Some CPU's will vary these things, so this hardware can actually be quite complicated

so it needs to work out how long the instruction is

So it could be as short as one byte

it could be as long on some CPU's as 15 bytes

and you sometimes don't know how long it's gonna be until you've read at few of the bytes

So this hardware can be relatively trivial

So an ARM CPU makes it very, very simple it says: all instructions are 32 bits long

So the Archimedes over there can fetch the instruction very, very simply

32 bits

On something like an x86, it can be any length up to 15 bytes or so

and so this becomes more complicated, you have to sort of work out

what it is utnil you've got it

But we fetch the instruction

So in the example we've got, we've got A9 here

So we now need to work out what A9 does

Well, we need to decode it into what we want the CPU to actually do

So we need to have another bit of our CPU's hardware

which we're dedicating to decoding the instruction

So we have a part of the CPU which is fetching it

and part of the CPU which is then decoding it

So it gets A9 into it: So the A9 comes into the decode

And it says: Well okay, that's a load instruction.

So I need to fetch a value from memory

which was the 43

the ASCII code for the capital letter C that we saw earlier

So we need to fetch something else from memory

We need to access memory again, and we need to work out what address

that's gonna be.

We also then need to, once we've got that value,

update the right register to store that value

So we've gotta do things in sequence.

So part of the Decode logic is to take the single instruction byte,

or how long it is,

and work out what's the sequence that we need to drive the other bits of the CPU to do

And so that also means that we have another bit of the CPU

which is the actual bit that does things,

which is gonna be all the logic which actually executes instructions

So we start off by fetching it

and then once we've fetched it we can start decoding it

and then we can execute it

And the decode logic is responsible for saying:

Put the address for where you want to get the value, that you can load into memory from

and then store it, once it's been loaded into the CPU

So you're doing things in order:

We have to fetch it first

and we can't decode it until we've fetched it

and we can't execute things until we've decoded it

So, at any one time, we'll probably find on a simple CPU

that quite a few of the bits of the CPU wouldn't actually be doing anything

So, while we're fetching the value from memory

to work out how we're gonna decode it

the decode and the execute logic aren't doing anything

They're just sitting there, waiting for their turn

And then, when we decode it, it's not fetching anything

and it's not executing anything

So we're sort of moving through these different states one after the other

And that takes different amounts of time

If we're fetching 15 bytes it's gonna take longer than if we're fetching one

decoding it might well be shorter

than if we're fetching something from memory, cos' this is all inside the CPU

And the execution depends on what's actually happening

So your CPU will work like this: It will go through each phase,

then once it's done that, it'll start on the next clock tick

all the CPU's are synchronized to a clock,

which just keeps things moving in sequence

and you can build a CPU. Something like the 6502 worked like that

But, as we said, lots of the CPU aren't actually doing anything at any time

which is a bit wasteful of the resources

So is there another way you can do this?

And the answer is yes! You can do what's called

a sort of pipe-lined model of a CPU

So what you do here is, you still have the same 3 bits of the CPU

But you say: Okay, so we gotta fetch (f)

instruction one

In the next bit of time, I'm gonna start decoding this one

So, I'm gonna start decoding instruction one

But I'm gonna say: I'm not using the fetch logic here,

so I'm gonna have this start to get things ready

and, start to do things ahead of schedule

I'm also at the same time gonna fetch instruction 2

So now I'm doing two things, two bit's of my CPU in use the same time

I'm fetching the next instruction, while decoding the first one

And once we've done decoding, I can start executing the first instruction

So I execute that

But at the same time, I can start decoding instruction 2

and hopefully, I can start fetching instruction 3

So what? It is still taking the same amount of time to execute that first instruction

So the beauty is when it comes to executing instruction two

it completes exactly one cycle after the other

rather than having to wait for it to go through the fetch and decode and execute cycles

we can just execute it as soon as we've finished instruction one

So each instruction still takes the same amount of time

it's gonna take, say, three clock cycles to go through the CPU

but because we've sort of pipelined it together

they actually appear to execute one after each other

so it appears to execute one clock cycle after each other

And we could do this again So we could start decoding

instruction 3 here

at the same time as we're executing instruction two

Now there can be problems

This works for some instructions, but say this instruction

said "store this value in memory"

Now you've got a problem

You've only got one address bus and one data bus

so you can only access or store one thing in memory at a time

You can't execute a store instruction and fetch a value from memory

So you wouldn't be able to fetch it until the next clock cycle

So we fetch instruction four there

while executing instruction three

But we can't decode anything here

So in this clock cycle, we can decode instruction four

and fetch instruction five

but we can't execute anything

We've got what's called a "bubble" in our pipelines,

or pipeline store

because at this point, the design of the CPU doesn't let us

fetch an instruction

and execute an instruction at the same time

it's ... what is called "pipeline hazards"

that you can get when designing a pipeline CPU

because the design of the CPU doesn't let you