about the pleasures of everyday life.

今日は日常の喜びについて

But I want to begin with a story

話したいと思います

of an unusual and terrible man.

でも異常で残忍な

This is Hermann Goering.

男の話から始めます

Goering was Hitler's second in command in World War II,

これはヘルマン・ゲーリングです

his designated successor.

第二次世界大戦中ヒットラーの右腕で

And like Hitler,

後継者とされていました

Goering fancied himself a collector of art.

そしてヒットラーのように

He went through Europe, through World War II,

彼も美術品のコレクターでした

stealing, extorting and occasionally buying

大戦中ヨーロッパ中で

various paintings for his collection.

様々な絵画を盗んだり巻き上げたり

And what he really wanted was something by Vermeer.

たまに買ったりしていました

Hitler had two of them, and he didn't have any.

彼が切実に欲しかったのはフェルメールの作品でした

So he finally found an art dealer,

ヒットラーは２作持っていたのに彼は持っていませんでした

a Dutch art dealer named Han van Meegeren,

とうとう見つけた画商は

who sold him a wonderful Vermeer

ハン・ファン・メーヘレンというオランダ人で

for the cost of what would now be 10 million dollars.

素晴らしいフェルメールの作品を

And it was his favorite artwork ever.

今のお金に換算すると１千万ドルの値で売りました

World War II came to an end,

これはゲーリングの一番大切な絵となりました

and Goering was captured, tried at Nuremberg

第二次大戦は終わり

and ultimately sentenced to death.

彼は逮捕され ニュルンベルクで裁判を受け

Then the Allied forces went through his collections

最終的に死刑が宣告されました

and found the paintings

連合軍は彼の所蔵品を捜索し

and went after the people who sold it to him.

絵画を発見して

And at some point the Dutch police came into Amsterdam

彼に売った画商を追跡しました

and arrested Van Meegeren.

そうしてオランダ警察がアムステルダムで

Van Meegeren was charged with the crime of treason,

ハン・メーヘレンを逮捕しました

which is itself punishable by death.

彼は反逆罪で起訴されましたが

Six weeks into his prison sentence,

これも死刑となり得るものでした

van Meegeren confessed.

実刑判決から６週間後

But he didn't confess to treason.

彼は自白しましたが

He said, "I did not sell a great masterpiece

反逆罪の自白ではありませんでした

to that Nazi.

「あのナチに素晴らしい巨匠の作品を

I painted it myself; I'm a forger."

売ったりなどしてません

Now nobody believed him.

あれは自分で描いた贋作です」

And he said, "I'll prove it.

でも誰も信じませんでした

Bring me a canvas and some paint,

それで彼は「証明するから

and I will paint a Vermeer much better

キャンバスと絵の具をください

than I sold that disgusting Nazi.

あの最低なナチに売ったフェルメールより

I also need alcohol and morphine, because it's the only way I can work."

ずっとうまく描いて見せます

(Laughter)

あと 酒とモルヒネもないとダメです」と言いました

So they brought him in.

（笑）

He painted a beautiful Vermeer.

それで彼は連れて来られて

And then the charges of treason were dropped.

美しいフェルメールを描きました

He had a lesser charge of forgery,

そして反逆罪の起訴は取り下げられました

got a year sentence

それより軽い詐欺罪で

and died a hero to the Dutch people.

１年の判決を受け

There's a lot more to be said about van Meegeren,

オランダ人のヒーローとして生涯を終えました

but I want to turn now to Goering,

ハン・メーヘレンについてはいろいろありますが

who's pictured here being interrogated at Nuremberg.

ゲーリングの話に戻ります

Now Goering was, by all accounts, a terrible man.

ニュルンベルクで尋問されている写真です

Even for a Nazi, he was a terrible man.

ゲーリングはすべての面で残忍で

His American interrogators described him

ナチの基準でも残忍な男でした

as an amicable psychopath.

アメリカ人の尋問者たちは彼のことを

But you could feel sympathy

友好的な異常者だと言っています

for the reaction he had

でも大切にしていた絵画が

when he was told that his favorite painting

本当は偽物だったと

was actually a forgery.

聞かされた時の彼の反応には

According to his biographer,

同情できるほどでした

"He looked as if for the first time

彼の伝記作家によると

he had discovered there was evil in the world."

「この世の悪を生まれて初めて

(Laughter)

目にしたかのようだった」

And he killed himself soon afterwards.

（笑）

He had discovered after all

そのあとまもなく彼は自殺しました

that the painting he thought was this

最後に彼は

was actually that.

これだと思っていた絵画が

It looked the same,

実はこれだったとわかったのです

but it had a different origin, it was a different artwork.

同じように見えますが

It wasn't just him who was in for a shock.

由来が異なり 違う芸術作品でした

Once van Meegeren was on trial, he couldn't stop talking.

他の人々もショックを受けました

And he boasted about all the great masterpieces

裁判でハン・メーヘレンは黙っていられなくなり

that he himself had painted

自分が他の芸術家を装って

that were attributed to other artists.

描いた素晴らしい名画の数々を

In particular, "The Supper at Emmaus"

自慢しました

which was viewed as Vermeer's finest masterpiece, his best work --

特に「エマオの晩餐」は

people would come [from] all over the world to see it --

フェルメールの最高傑作と言われており

was actually a forgery.

世界中から人々が見に来ていましたが

It was not that painting, but that painting.

実は贋作だったのです

And when that was discovered,

これではなく これだったのです

it lost all its value and was taken away from the museum.

それが判明したとき

Why does this matter?

この絵の価値はなくなり美術館から運び出されました

I'm a psychologists -- why do origins matter so much?

なぜそうなるのか？

Why do we respond so much

なぜ由来がこんなに重要なのか？

to our knowledge of where something comes from?

どこからきたのかという知識に

Well there's an answer that many people would give.

どうしてこれほど影響を受けるのか？

Many sociologists like Veblen and Wolfe

多くの人が考える答えがあります

would argue that the reason why we take origins so seriously

ベブレンやウルフなどの社会学者なら

is because we're snobs, because we're focused on status.

由来が重要視されるのは 私たちが俗物で

Among other things,

ステータスに固執しているからだと言うでしょう

if you want to show off how rich you are, how powerful you are,

いろいろある中でも

it's always better to own an original than a forgery

金と権力を誇示したかったら

because there's always going to be fewer originals than forgeries.

偽造品より希少な本物を

I don't doubt that that plays some role,

所有するほうがいいに決まっています

but what I want to convince you of today

ある程度はそうだと思いますが

is that there's something else going on.

今日皆さんに伝えたいのは

I want to convince you

他の要素があることです

that humans are, to some extent, natural born essentialists.

人は生まれつきある程度

What I mean by this

本質主義だということです

is we don't just respond to things as we see them,

どういうことかと言うと

or feel them, or hear them.

私たちは見たり感じたり聞こえる

Rather, our response is conditioned on our beliefs,

そのままに反応しないのです

about what they really are, what they came from,

私たちの反応はそれが実際何であるか

what they're made of, what their hidden nature is.

どこからきたのか また何で作られていて

I want to suggest that this is true,

目に見えない性質は何かという自分の信念に

not just for how we think about things,

条件付けされています

but how we react to things.

どう物事を考えるかだけでなく

So I want to suggest that pleasure is deep --

どう物事に反応するかもです

and that this isn't true

つまり喜びは奥深いということです

just for higher level pleasures like art,

これは高レベルな芸術だけに

but even the most seemingly simple pleasures

当てはまることではなく

are affected by our beliefs about hidden essences.

最もシンプルに見える喜びも

So take food.

見えない本質についての信念に左右されるのです

Would you eat this?

例えば食べ物

Well, a good answer is, "It depends. What is it?"

これを食べますか？

Some of you would eat it if it's pork, but not beef.

妥当な答えは「何の肉かにもよるけど」ですね

Some of you would eat it if it's beef, but not pork.

豚はよくて牛はダメな人もいれば

Few of you would eat it if it's a rat

牛は食べて豚は食べない人もいます

or a human.

ネズミや人間だと

Some of you would eat it only if it's a strangely colored piece of tofu.

食べる人はほとんどいません

That's not so surprising.

変わった色の豆腐だったら食べるという人もいます

But what's more interesting

あまり驚くことではありません

is how it tastes to you

でももっと面白いのは

will depend critically on what you think you're eating.

何だと思って食べているかで

So one demonstration of this was done with young children.

どんな味がするか決定的に違うということです

How do you make children

この実証は幼い子供たちを対象に行われました

not just be more likely to eat carrots and drink milk,

子供がニンジンを食べて

but to get more pleasure from eating carrots and drinking milk --

牛乳を飲むだけでなく それらにもっと

to think they taste better?

喜びを感じてもらい 美味しいと思ってもらうには

It's simple, you tell them they're from McDonald's.

どうしたらいいか？

They believe McDonald's food is tastier,

簡単です　マクドナルドで買ったと言うんです

and it leads them to experience it as tastier.

マクドナルドの方が美味しいという

How do you get adults to really enjoy wine?

思い込みがこれらを美味しく感じさせるのです

It's very simple:

大人にワインを楽しんでもらうには？

pour it from an expensive bottle.

非常に簡単です

There are now dozens, perhaps hundreds of studies showing

高価なボトルから注ぎます

that if you believe you're drinking the expensive stuff,

今では何十も何百もの調査により

it tastes better to you.

高価なワインだと思い込んでいると

This was recently done with a neuroscientific twist.

美味しく感じると示されています

They get people into a fMRI scanner,

最近 同じ調査が神経科学的にも行われました

and while they're lying there, through a tube,

被験者をfMRI装置に入れて

they get to sip wine.

寝た状態でチューブから

In front of them on a screen is information about the wine.

ワインを少しずつ飲んでもらいます

Everybody, of course,

目の前の画面にはワインの情報があり

drinks exactly the same wine.

もちろん全員が

But if you believe you're drinking expensive stuff,

全く同じワインを飲みますが

parts of the brain associated with pleasure and reward

高価なものを飲んでいると思うと

light up like a Christmas tree.

喜びと報酬に関連する脳の部分が

It's not just that you say it's more pleasurable, you say you like it more,

ピカピカ光ります

you really experience it in a different way.

もっと楽しめるとかこの方が好きと言うだけでなく

Or take sex.

本当に違った体験をするのです

These are stimuli I've used in some of my studies.

セックスもそうです

And if you simply show people these pictures,

これらは研究で要因として使った写真です

they'll say these are fairly attractive people.

これらの写真を人々に普通に見せると

But how attractive you find them,

なかなか魅力的だと言います

how sexually or romantically moved you are by them,

でもどのくらい魅力的に感じるか

rests critically on who you think you're looking at.

性的またはロマンス的に感じるかは

You probably think the picture on the left is male,

誰だと思っているかで大きく違います

the one on the right is female.

左の写真の人は男性で右の人は女性だと

If that belief turns out to be mistaken, it will make a difference.

皆さんきっと思うでしょう

(Laughter)

これが間違いだった場合 違いが生じます

It will make a difference if they turn out to be

（笑）

much younger or much older than you think they are.

２人が見た目より若かったり

It will make a difference if you were to discover

年を取っていても違いが生じます

that the person you're looking at with lust

そそられながら見ていた相手が

is actually a disguised version of your son or daughter,

実は変装した息子や娘

your mother or father.

母親や父親だったと知った場合も

Knowing somebody's your kin typically kills the libido.

違いが生じます

Maybe one of the most heartening findings

自分の血縁であるという知識は性欲を抹消します

from the psychology of pleasure

喜びの心理学で最も励まされる

is there's more to looking good than your physical appearance.

調査結果の１つだろうと言えるのは

If you like somebody, they look better to you.

魅力には外見以上のものがあるということです

This is why spouses in happy marriages

好きな相手は魅力的に見えます

tend to think that their husband or wife

幸せな結婚生活をするカップルが

looks much better than anyone else thinks that they do.

他の人が思うより

(Laughter)

お互いを素敵だと思う理由はこれです

A particularly dramatic example of this

（笑）

comes from a neurological disorder known as Capgras syndrome.

特に劇的な例として

So Capgras syndrome is a disorder

カプグラ症候群という神経障害があります

where you get a specific delusion.

これは特定の妄想が

Sufferers of Capgras syndrome

出る障害です

believe that the people they love most in the world

カプグラ症候群の患者は

have been replaced by perfect duplicates.

世界で最も愛している人たちが

Now often, a result of Capgras syndrome is tragic.

そっくりの別人とすり替えられたと

People have murdered those that they loved,

思い込み その結果悲劇となることもよくあります

believing that they were murdering an imposter.

偽者だと信じて

But there's at least one case

愛する人たちを殺害したりしています

where Capgras syndrome had a happy ending.

でも少なくとも１つは

This was recorded in 1931.

ハッピーエンドでした

"Research described a woman with Capgras syndrome

1931年の記録です

who complained about her poorly endowed and sexually inadequate lover."

「あそこが小さくベッドで無能な恋人に

But that was before she got Capgras syndrome.

不満があったカプグラ症候群の女性の研究」

After she got it, "She was happy to report

でもこれはカプグラ症候群になる前です

that she has discovered that he possessed a double

なってからは「女性はうれしそうに

who was rich, virile, handsome and aristocratic."

金持ちで精力的でハンサムで端正なそっくりさんの

Of course, it was the same man,

存在を発見したと報告した」

but she was seeing him in different ways.

もちろん同じ男ですが

As a third example,

女性は違った目で見ていたんです

consider consumer products.

３つ目の例として

So one reason why you might like something is its utility.

消費者製品を考えます

You can put shoes on your feet; you can play golf with golf clubs;

何かを好きな理由として実用性があります

and chewed up bubble gum doesn't do anything at all for you.

靴は履くことができ ゴルフ用クラブではゴルフができます

But each of these three objects has value

噛み終わった風船ガムは全く役に立ちません

above and beyond what it can do for you

でもこれら３つには実用性を越えた

based on its history.

経歴に基づいた価値が

The golf clubs were owned by John F. Kennedy

それぞれあります

and sold for three-quarters of a million dollars at auction.

ゴルフクラブはJFKが所有していたもので

The bubble gum was chewed up by pop star Britney Spears

オークションで75万ドルの値がつきました

and sold for several hundreds of dollars.

ガムはポップ歌手ブリトニー・スピアーズが噛んだもので

And in fact, there's a thriving market

何百ドルの値で売れました

in the partially eaten food of beloved people.

実際 好きな人物の食べ残しには

(Laughter)

盛況な市場があります

The shoes are perhaps the most valuable of all.

（笑）

According to an unconfirmed report,

この靴はこの中で一番価値のあるものでしょう

a Saudi millionaire offered 10 million dollars

ある確証のない報告によると

for this pair of shoes.

サウジアラビアの億万長者が

They were the ones thrown at George Bush

100万ドル払うと言ったそうです

at an Iraqi press conference several years ago.

これらは何年か前にイラクの記者会見で

(Applause)

ブッシュに投げつけられた靴です

Now this attraction to objects

（拍手）

doesn't just work for celebrity objects.

物に魅かれることは

Each one of us, most people,

有名人の物に対してだけではなく

have something in our life that's literally irreplaceable,

ほとんどの人にはそれぞれ

in that it has value because of its history --

文字通りかけがえない品があります

maybe your wedding ring, maybe your child's baby shoes --

その品の経歴のために価値がある―

so that if it was lost, you couldn't get it back.

結婚指輪だとか子供の赤ちゃんの時の靴とか―

You could get something that looked like it or felt like it,

もし失くしたらおしまいなものです

but you couldn't get the same object back.

似たような品は手に入っても

With my colleagues George Newman and Gil Diesendruck,

同じ品は戻ってこないのです

we've looked to see what sort of factors, what sort of history, matters

同僚のジョージ・ニューマンとギル・ディーセンドラックと共に

for the objects that people like.

どのような要素や経歴が人の好きな品に

So in one of our experiments,

影響を持つのか調べました

we asked people to name a famous person who they adored,

実験の１つで

a living person they adored.

熱愛する有名人を挙げてもらいました

So one answer was George Clooney.

生きている有名人です

Then we asked them,

ジョージ・クルーニーが挙げられました

"How much would you pay for George Clooney's sweater?"

そこで「彼のセーターに

And the answer is a fair amount --

いくら払いますか？」と尋ねました

more than you would pay for a brand new sweater

なかなかの金額でした

or a sweater owned by somebody who you didn't adore.

新品のセーターや熱愛していない人の

Then we asked other groups of subjects --

セーターに支払う額より高額です