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  • Hi, I’m Carrie Anne and this is Crash Course Computer Science!

  • Last episode, we combined an ALU, control unit, some memory, and a clock together to

  • make a basic, but functional Central Processing Unitor CPUthe beating, ticking heart

  • of a computer.

  • Weve done all the hard work of building many of these components from the electronic

  • circuits up, and now it’s time to give our CPU some actual instructions to process!

  • The thing that makes a CPU powerful is the fact that it is programmableif you write

  • a different sequence of instructions, then the CPU will perform a different task.

  • So the CPU is a piece of hardware which is controlled by easy-to-modify software!

  • INTRO

  • Let’s quickly revisit the simple program that we stepped through last episode.

  • The computer memory looked like this.

  • Each address contained 8 bits of data.

  • For our hypothetical CPU, the first four bits specified the operation code, or opcode, and

  • the second set of four bits specified an address or registers.

  • In memory address zero we have 0010 1110.

  • Again, those first four bits are our opcode which corresponds to a “LOAD_A” instruction.

  • This instruction reads data from a location of memory specified in those last four bits

  • of the instruction and saves it into Register A. In this case, 1110, or 14 in decimal.

  • So let’s not think of this of memory address 0 as “0010 1110”, but rather as the instruction

  • LOAD_A 14”.

  • That’s much easier to read and understand!

  • And for me to say!

  • And we can do the same thing for the rest of the data in memory.

  • In this case, our program is just four instructions long, and weve put some numbers into memory

  • too, 3 and 14.

  • So now let’s step through this program:

  • First is LOAD_A 14, which takes the value in address 14, which is the number 3, and

  • stores it into Register A.

  • Then we have a “LOAD_B 15” instruction, which takes the value in memory location 15,

  • which is the number 14, and saves it into Register B.

  • Okay.

  • Easy enough.

  • But now we have anADDinstruction.

  • This tells the processor to use the ALU to add two registers together, in this case,

  • B and A are specified.

  • The ordering is important, because the resulting sum is saved into the second register that’s specified.

  • So in this case, the resulting sum is saved into Register A.

  • And finally, our last instruction isSTORE_A 13”, which instructs the CPU to write whatever

  • value is in Register A into memory location 13.

  • Yesss!

  • Our program adds two numbers together.

  • That’s about as exciting as it gets when we only have four instructions to play with.

  • So let’s add some more!

  • Now weve got a subtract function, which like ADD, specifies two registers to operate on.

  • Weve also got a fancy new instruction called JUMP.

  • As the name implies, this causes the program tojumpto a new location.

  • This is useful if we want to change the order of instructions, or choose to skip some instructions.

  • For example, a JUMP 0, would cause the program to go back to the beginning.

  • At a low level, this is done by writing the value specified in the last four bits into

  • the instruction address register, overwriting the current value.

  • Weve also added a special version of JUMP called JUMP_NEGATIVE.

  • This only jumps the program if the ALU’s negative flag is set to true.

  • As we talked about in Episode 5, the negative flag is only set when the result of an arithmetic

  • operation is negative.

  • If the result of the arithmetic was zero or positive, the negative flag would not be set.

  • So the JUMP NEGATIVE won’t jump anywhere, and the CPU will just continue on to the next instruction.

  • And finally, computers need to be told when to stop processing, so we need a HALT instruction.

  • Our previous program really should have looked like this to be correct, otherwise the CPU

  • would have just continued on after the STORE instruction, processing all those 0’s.

  • But there is no instruction with an opcode of 0, and so the computer would have crashed!

  • It’s important to point out here that were storing both instructions and data in the

  • same memory.

  • There is no difference fundamentally -- it’s all just binary numbers.

  • So the HALT instruction is really important because it allows us to separate the two.

  • Okay, so let’s make our program a bit more interesting, by adding a JUMP.

  • Well also modify our two starting values in memory to 1 and 1.

  • Lets step through this program just as our CPU would.

  • First, LOAD_A 14 loads the value 1 into Register A.

  • Next, LOAD_B 15 loads the value 1 into Register B.

  • As before, we ADD registers B and A together, with the sum going into Register A. 1+1 = 2,

  • so now Register A has the value 2 in it (stored in binary of course)

  • Then the STORE instruction saves that into memory location 13.

  • Now we hit a “JUMP 2” instruction.

  • This causes the processor to overwrite the value in the instruction address register,

  • which is currently 4, with the new value, 2.

  • Now, on the processor’s next fetch cycle, we don’t fetch HALT, instead we fetch the

  • instruction at memory location 2, which is ADD B A.

  • Weve jumped!

  • Register A contains the value 2, and register B contains the value 1.

  • So 1+2 = 3, so now Register A has the value 3.

  • We store that into memory.

  • And weve hit the JUMP again, back to ADD B A.

  • 1+3 = 4.

  • So now register A has the value 4.

  • See what's happening here?

  • Every loop, were adding one.

  • Its counting up!

  • Cooooool.

  • But notice there’s no way to ever escape.

  • Were never.. ever.. going to get to that halt instruction, because were always going

  • to hit that JUMP.

  • This is called an infinite loop – a program that runs foreverevereverever

  • ever

  • To break the loop, we need a conditional jump.

  • A jump that only happens if a certain condition is met.

  • Our JUMP_NEGATIVE is one example of a conditional jump, but computers have other types too - like

  • JUMP IF EQUAL and JUMP IF GREATER.

  • So let’s make our code a little fancier and step through it.

  • Just like before, the program starts by loading values from memory into registers A and B.

  • In this example, the number 11 gets loaded into Register A, and 5 gets loaded into Register B.

  • Now we subtract register B from register A. That’s 11 minus 5, which is 6, and so 6

  • gets saved into Register A.

  • Now we hit our JUMP NEGATIVE.

  • The last ALU result was 6.

  • That’s a positive number, so the the negative flag is false.

  • That means the processor does not jump.

  • So we continue on to the next instruction...

  • ...which is a JUMP 2.

  • No conditional on this one, so we jump to instruction 2 no matter what.

  • Ok, so were back at our SUBTRACT Register B from Register A. 6 minus 5 equals 1.

  • So 1 gets saved into register A.

  • Next instruction.

  • Were back again at our JUMP NEGATIVE.

  • 1 is also a positive number, so the CPU continues on to the JUMP 2, looping back around again

  • to the SUBTRACT instruction.

  • This time is different though.

  • 1 minus 5 is negative 4.

  • And so the ALU sets its negative flag to true for the first time.

  • Now, when we advance to the next instruction,

  • JUMP_NEGATIVE 5, the CPU executes the jump to memory location 5.

  • Were out of the infinite loop!

  • Now we have a ADD B to A. Negative 4 plus 5, is positive 1, and we save that into Register A.

  • Next we have a STORE instruction that saves Register A into memory address 13.

  • Lastly, we hit our HALT instruction and the computer rests.

  • So even though this program is only 7 instructions long, the CPU ended up executing 13 instructions,

  • and that's because it looped twice internally.

  • This code calculated the remainder if we divide 5 into 11, which is one.

  • With a few extra lines of code, we could also keep track of how many loops we did, the count

  • of which would be how many times 5 went into 11… we did two loops, so that means 5 goes

  • into 11 two times... with a remainder of 1.

  • And of course this code could work for any two numbers, which we can just change in memory

  • to whatever we want: 7 and 81, 18 and 54, it doesn’t matter -- that’s the power

  • of software!

  • Software also allowed us to do something our hardware could not.

  • Remember, our ALU didn’t have the functionality to divide two numbers, instead it’s the

  • program we made that gave us that functionality.

  • And then other programs can use our divide program to do even fancier things.

  • And you know what that means.

  • New levels of abstraction!

  • So, our hypothetical CPU is very basicall of its instructions are 8 bits long, with

  • the opcode occupying only the first four bits.

  • So even if we used every combination of 4 bits, our CPU would only be able to support

  • a maximum of 16 different instructions.

  • On top of that, several of our instructions used the last 4 bits to specify a memory location.

  • But again, 4 bits can only encode 16 different values, meaning we can address a maximum of

  • 16 memory locations - that’s not a lot to work with.

  • For example, we couldn’t even JUMP to location 17, because we literally can’t fit the number

  • 17 into 4 bits.

  • For this reason, real, modern CPUs use two strategies.

  • The most straightforward approach is just to have bigger instructions, with more bits,

  • like 32 or 64 bits.

  • This is called the instruction length.

  • Unsurprisingly.

  • The second approach is to use variable length instructions.

  • For example, imagine a CPU that uses 8 bit opcodes.

  • When the CPU sees an instruction that needs no extra values, like the HALT instruction,

  • it can just execute it immediately.

  • However, if it sees something like a JUMP instruction, it knows it must also fetch

  • the address to jump to, which is saved immediately behind the JUMP instruction in memory.

  • This is called, logically enough, an Immediate Value.

  • In such processor designs, instructions can be any number of bytes long, which makes the

  • fetch cycle of the CPU a tad more complicated.

  • Now, our example CPU and instruction set is hypothetical, designed to illustrate key working

  • principles.

  • So I want to leave you with a real CPU example.

  • In 1971, Intel released the 4004 processor.

  • It was the first CPU put all into a single chip and paved the path to the intel processors

  • we know and love today.

  • It supported 46 instructions, shown here.

  • Which was enough to build an entire working computer.

  • And it used many of the instructions weve talked about like JUMP ADD SUBTRACT and LOAD.

  • It also uses 8-bit immediate values, like we just talked about, for things like JUMPs,

  • in order to address more memory.

  • And processors have come a long way since 1971.

  • A modern computer processor, like an Intel Core i7, has thousands of different instructions

  • and instruction variants, ranging from one to fifteen bytes long.

  • For example, there’s over a dozens different opcodes just for variants of ADD!

  • And this huge growth in instruction set size is due in large part to extra bells and whistles

  • that have been added to processor designs overtime, which well talk about next episode.

  • See you next week!

Hi, I’m Carrie Anne and this is Crash Course Computer Science!

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インストラクションとプログラム.クラッシュコースコンピュータサイエンス#8 (Instructions & Programs: Crash Course Computer Science #8)

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    黃齡萱 に公開 2021 年 01 月 14 日
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