Name: ピアジェの認知発達論 (Piaget's theory of cognitive development)
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development Piaget's theory of cognitive development is

a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence, first developed

様態の副詞

by Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget . It is primarily known as a developmental

stage theory but, in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans

come gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. To Piaget, cognitive development was

a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental

experience. Accordingly, children construct an understanding of the world around them,

then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in

their environment. Moreover, Piaget claimed the idea that cognitive development is at

the center of human organism, and language is contingent on cognitive development. Below

is a short description of Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence, followed by a

description of the stages through which it develops until maturity.

Nature of intelligence: operative and figurative Piaget noted reality in the sense of as a

dynamic system of continuous change and, as such, is defined in reference to the two conditions

that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations

and states. Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo.

States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between

transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for instance,

liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another, humans change

in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (for example, a series of coins on

a table might be placed close to each other or far apart), or in placement or location

in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one place at one

time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, if human intelligence

is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and

the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative intelligence is responsible

for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic or transformational aspects of

reality, and that figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of the

static aspects of reality. Operative intelligence is the active aspect

of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow,

recover, or anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest. Figurative

intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation

used to retain in mind the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene

between transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing,

and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning from

the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently of the transformations

that interconnect them. Piaget stated that the figurative or the representational aspects

of intelligence are subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding

essentially derives from the operative aspect of intelligence.

At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes

if understanding is not successful. Piaget stated that this process of understanding

and change involves two basic functions: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation and accommodation Through his study of the field of education,

Piaget focused on two processes, which he named assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation

describes how humans perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of fitting

new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when humans are

faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in

order to make sense of it. Unlike it, accommodation is the process of taking new information in

one's environment and altering pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information.

Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the ways in which characteristics are constructed

that lead to specific types of thinking. This chart is called cognitive development. To

Piaget, assimilation is integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments,

or those we could have through experience. It is through assimilation that accommodation

is derived. Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue to interpret

new concepts, schemas, frameworks, and more. Assimilation is different from accommodation

by how it relates to the inner organism due to the environment. Piaget believes that the

human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring equilibrium, which is what Piaget

believes ultimately influences structures by the internal and external processes through

assimilation and accommodation. Piaget's understanding is that these two functions

cannot exist without the other. To assimilate an object into an existing mental schema,

one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a

certain extent. For instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple, one must

first focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this, one needs to roughly

recognize the size of the object. Development increases the balance, or equilibration, between

these two functions. When in balance with each other, assimilation and accommodation

generate mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one function dominates over the other,

they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.

Sensorimotor stage The sensorimotor stage is the first of the

four stages in cognitive development which "extends from birth to the acquisition of

language". In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the

world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) with physical interactions

with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping). Infants gain knowledge of the world

from these physical actions they perform within it. They progress from reflexive, instinctual

action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

The child learns that he/she is separate from the environment and that aspects of the environment

continue to exist, even though they may be outside the reach of the child's senses. In

this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important

accomplishments. Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects continue to exist

even though they cannot be seen or heard. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into

six sub-stages". By the end of the sensorimotor period, the

child sees objects as both separate from the self, and permanent.

Pre-operational stage Piaget's second stage, the pre-operational

stage, starts when the child begins to learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the

age of seven. During the Pre-operational Stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that

children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information.

Children’s increase in playing and pretending takes place in this stage. However, the child

still has trouble seeing things from different points of view. The children's play is mainly

categorized by symbolic play and manipulating symbols. Such play is demonstrated by the

idea of checkers being snacks, pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table. Their

observations of symbols exemplifies the idea of play with the absence of the actual objects

involved. By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, towards

the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs,

known as the Pre-operational Stage. The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically

inadequate in regard to mental operations. The child is able to form stable concepts

as well as magical beliefs. The child, however, is still not able to perform operations, which

are tasks that the child can do mentally, rather than physically. Thinking in this stage

is still egocentric, meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others.

The Pre-operational Stage is split into two substages: the symbolic function substage,

and the intuitive thought substage. The symbolic function substage is when children are able

to understand, represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the object

in front of them. The intuitive thought substage is when children tend to propose the questions

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ピアジェの認知発達論 (Piaget's theory of cognitive development)

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