that pleasure is the only intrinsic good. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to

maximize net pleasure . Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people

have the right to do everything in their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure

possible to them. It is also the idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass

their amount of pain. Ethical hedonism is said to have been started by a student of

Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene. He held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.

Etymology The name derives from the Greek word for "delight"

(ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure", cognate with English

sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism"). History of development

Sumerian civilization In the original Old Babylonian version of

the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon after the invention of writing, Siduri gave

the following advice "Fill your belly. Day and night make merry. Let days be full of

joy. Dance and make music day and night These things alone are the concern of men", which

may represent the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.

Ancient Egypt Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at

a feast was common in ancient Egyptian tombs (see Harper's Songs), and sometimes contained

hedonistic elements, calling guests to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that

they will be rewarded for good with a blissful afterlife. The following is a song attributed

to the reign of one of the Intef kings before or after the 12th dynasty, and the text was

used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Cārvāka

Cārvāka was an Indian hedonist school of thought that arose approximately 600 BCE,

and died out in the 14th century CE. The Cārvākas maintained that the Hindu scriptures are false,

that the priests are liars, and that there is no afterlife, and that pleasure should

be the aim of living. Unlike other Indian schools of philosophy, the Cārvākas argued

that there is nothing wrong with sensual indulgence. They held a naturalistic worldview. They believed

that perception is the only source of knowledge. Classic schools of antiquity

Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a

hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness",

claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK

68 B 188). The Cyrenaic school

The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century

BCE, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed

to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger. The

school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest

Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which

meant not just the absence of pain, but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary

pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They

did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could be gained

from altruism. Theodorus the Atheist was a latter exponent of hedonism who was a disciple

of younger Aristippus, while becoming well known for exposing atheism. The school died

out within a century, and was replaced by Epicureanism.

The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced logic to

a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth. They thought that we can know with

certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that I am having a sweet sensation

now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations

(for instance, that the honey is sweet). They also denied that we can have knowledge of

what the experiences of other people are like. All knowledge is immediate sensation. These

sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant,

according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual,

and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge. Feeling, therefore,

is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct. Our ways of being affected

are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.

Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore,

all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have

no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind.

Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the

validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more

intense, were preferable. Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only

good for humans. However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than

their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than

be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the

different pleasures of life. Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though

these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant

penalties being imposed by others. Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because

of the pleasure they provide. Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social

obligation and altruistic behaviour. Epicureanism

Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341–c.

270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps

of Democritus and Leucippus. His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition

or the idea of divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus

believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable "pleasure" in the form

of a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain

(aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires.

The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form.

Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole

intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy

of a simple life make it different from "hedonism" as it is commonly understood.

In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained

by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment

of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites,

verging on asceticism. He argued that when eating, one should not eat too richly, for

it could lead to dissatisfaction later, such as the grim realization that one could not

afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction

with the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics

that has survived but had a unique version of the Golden Rule.

Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main

opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus,

his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the

Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria,

Rhodes and Ercolano). The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent. By the end

of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism had all

but died out, and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre Gassendi,

who adapted it to the Christian doctrine. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some

scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in one unified

work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the

Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged

to the Epicurean Philodemus. Mohism

Mohism was a philosophical school of thought founded by Mozi in the 5th century BCE. It

paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers. As Confucianism became

the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties, starting from the Emperor Wu of

Han, Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools of thought were suppressed.

Christian hedonism Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian

doctrine current in some evangelical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition.

" Christian Hedonism may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards. In the 17th century the

atomist Pierre Gassendi, adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.

Utilitarianism Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral

motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness. It is an ethical

theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "good"

of the society. It is thus one form of consequentialism meaning that the moral worth of an action

is determined by its resulting outcome. The most influential contributors to this theory

are considered to be Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The 18th and 19th-century British

philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill defended the ethical theory of utilitarianism,

according to which we should perform whichever action maximizes the aggregate good. Conjoining

hedonism, as a view as to what is good for people, to utilitarianism has the result that

all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (Hedonic

Calculus). Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s versions

of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:

One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, defends a quantitative approach. Bentham believed

that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essentially, he believed the value

of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number

of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account.

Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill, argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that

there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower

quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to pigs) have an easier

access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can

simply indulge in their lower pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought

on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more

difficult for them to indulge in such "simple pleasures" in the same manner.

Contemporary approaches Contemporary proponents of hedonism are Swedish

philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö and Fred Feldman. Michel Onfray

A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and on the history of hedonistic thought is

the French Michel Onfray. He defines hedonism "as an introspective attitude to life based

on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone

else." "Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism,

and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the

body's capacities to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful

role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions."

Onfray's works "have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges

to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing.

His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,"

of which three have been published. For him "In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated

by the dominant school of thought, hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with

your own pleasure and that of others; the one must never be indulged at the expense

of sacrificing the other. Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure

of others – presumes that we approach the subject from different angles – political,

ethical, aesthetic, erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical…."

For this he has "written books on each of these facets of the same world view." His

philosophy aims "for "micro-revolutions, " or revolutions of the individual and small groups

of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values."

Abolitionism The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist

group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced

biotechnology. Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism. David Pearce is a theorist

of this perspective and he believes and promotes the idea that there exists a strong ethical

imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering in all sentient life.

His book-length internet manifesto The Hedonistic Imperative outlines how technologies such

as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, and neurosurgery could potentially converge

to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing

suffering with gradients of well-being, a project he refers to as "paradise engineering".

A transhumanist and a vegan, Pearce believes that we (or our future posthuman descendants)

have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to

alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild.

Criticisms There is a critical point where the value

of hedonistic properties is affected by actual age and the depreciation schedule turns upward.

It is argued that if social constructionism is going to come to grips with morality and

agency it must abandon explanations that invoke the necessary causation of metaphysical abstractions

such as hedonism.