I'm standing on land in what's now South Florida that's currently controlled by the U.S., but in the past has been controlled by the Spanish, is possibly named after the Moyaimi, and is the traditional territory of the Colusa, Miccosukee, Seminole, Taino, and Tequesta nations.

私が今立っているのは、現在の南フロリダの土地で、現在は米国が支配しているが、過去にはスペイン人が支配していた土地であり、おそらくモヤイミ族にちなんで名付けられた土地であり、コルーサ族、ミコスキー族、セミノール族、タイノ族、テケスタ族の伝統的な領土である。

As we've talked about a few times here on Crash Course Geography, each place comes with multiple names and a long history of rulers and claims that can still influence how it's perceived today.

クラッシュコース地理で何度かお話ししたように、それぞれの場所には複数の名前があり、支配者や主張の長い歴史があり、それが今日でもその場所の捉え方に影響を与えることがある。

As geographers, we can look at why those territories change control so much, and what the impact of that control has on relationships and landscapes.

地理学者として、私たちはなぜ領土の支配がこれほどまでに変化するのか、そしてその支配が人間関係や景観にどのような影響を与えるのかに目を向けることができる。

I'm Alizé Carrère and this is Crash Course Geography.

アリゼ・カレールです。クラッシュ・コース・ジオグラフィーです。

Last time, we explored the relationships different economic systems can create between states.

前回は、異なる経済システムが国家間に生み出しうる関係を探った。

This can be a relationship like the one between Bulgaria and Germany.

これはブルガリアとドイツのような関係になりうる。

Their shared communist then capitalist history has led to long-standing alliances and being committed trading partners through all sorts of governments and economies.

共産主義と資本主義の歴史を共有する両国は、長年にわたる同盟関係を築き、あらゆる種類の政府と経済を通じて、献身的な貿易パートナーとなってきた。

Though we've also seen how geopolitics and different governments can influence the relationships between states. And today we're going to talk about a particular form of governing and the lasting impact it can have throughout the world. That's right, get out your risk boards, we're talking about empires. An empire forms when a single authority controls multiple territories, states, and countries. There are several ways an empire can function ranging from intrusive to rather hands-off. But when an empire also creates unequal economic or power relationships, that relationship is considered imperialism. Though this relationship can eventually be more hands-off too. Imperialism describes the domination and subordination of one state over others, and is often motivated by the acquisition of land, resources, or strategic positions.

地政学と異なる政府が国家間の関係にどのような影響を与えるかも見てきた。そして今日は、ある特殊な統治形態と、それが世界中に与えうる永続的な影響について話そう。そうだ、リスクボードを出して、帝国の話をしよう。帝国とは、単一の権威が複数の領土、州、国を支配することで形成される。帝国が機能する方法はいくつかあり、押しつけがましいものから、むしろ手出し無用なものまである。しかし、帝国が不平等な経済関係や権力関係をも生み出す場合、その関係は帝国主義とみなされる。しかし、この関係も最終的には、より手をかけないものになる

From there, we can look at different types of colonization, which is either a type of imperialism or just another type of empire, depending on who you ask, that often implies settlement of people in an area, and a degree of cultural control in addition to control of land and resources. Which kind of sounds like imperialism plus. Imperialism and colonialism do have really similar definitions. In fact, they're still debated within geography and other disciplines. In the early 21st century, when we talk about colonialism, we're often referring to European colonialism, which happened globally between the 15th century to the present.

植民地化とは、帝国主義の一種であるか、あるいは単なる帝国の一種であるかは人によるが、その地域に人々を定住させ、土地や資源の支配に加えてある程度の文化的支配を意味することが多い。つまり、帝国主義プラスアルファのようなものだ。帝国主義と植民地主義は実によく似た定義を持っている。実際、地理学やその他の学問分野では、いまだに議論が続いている。21世紀初頭、植民地主義といえば、15世紀から現在に至るまで世界的に起こったヨーロッパの植民地主義を指すことが多い。

But the Chinese, Japanese, and Mongols built vast empires too. In this case, we talk about imperialism because of the way each expanded through force, and each had elements of extraction of resources and control of local politics. We feel the impacts of colonialism and imperialism around us in almost all places in the world, even though many of those systems have been formally ended. For instance, the Mongol Empire consolidated a huge chunk of Central Asia, and even though the territory has changed hands many times, it's still more or less together.

しかし、中国、日本、モンゴルも巨大な帝国を築いた。この場合、私たちが帝国主義について語るのは、それぞれが武力によって拡大し、資源の採掘や地方政治の支配という要素を持っていたからである。植民地主義や帝国主義の影響は、その多くが正式に終焉したとはいえ、世界のほぼすべての場所で私たちの身近に感じられる。例えば、モンゴル帝国は中央アジアの巨大な塊を統合し、その領土は何度も支配者が変わったとはいえ、多かれ少なかれ残っている。

Today, that land makes up much of what's now Russia and Mongolia. Ultimately, empire, imperialism, and colonialism are all interrelated tactics of geopolitics that are used to achieve similar goals of one state maintaining economic, political, or cultural dominance over other territories, often for economic gain. In geography, when we want to study how colonialism changes the cultural landscape, we'll start with economic relationships. As we'll talk about more next time, geographers are particularly interested in the mechanisms that create uneven development, where one place has more wealth and power than another. Modern economic relationships have deep connections to colonialism, and geographers have a few different ways to think about the connection between colonialism and current economic landscapes. One way to think about lasting impacts of colonialism on the landscape is through dependency theory. The basic idea is that the long history of extraction between a colony and its colonizer creates an economic situation that's difficult to pull out of. It leaves those former colonies still economically reliant on the colonizer after gaining independence. To further explain the relationship between those with global power and those without, world systems theory categorizes the world into core areas with a lot of wealth and power, periphery areas that send raw materials to the core and rely on the core for economic support, and then semi-periphery areas which rely on relationships with both the core and the periphery and some wealth and power. And neocolonialism is another theory that attempts to explain situations where one country is outwardly independent, but their economic and political power is closely monitored and controlled by external forces. Geographers use ideas like these and others to explain the way powerful and less powerful countries relate to each other.

今日、その土地は現在のロシアとモンゴルの大部分を占めている。結局のところ、帝国、帝国主義、植民地主義はすべて、地政学の相互に関連した戦術であり、ある国家が経済的利益のために他の領土に対する経済的、政治的、文化的支配を維持するという同様の目的を達成するために用いられる。地理学では、植民地主義が文化的景観をどのように変化させるかを研究する場合、経済的関係から始めることになる。次回詳しくお話ししますが、地理学者は、ある場所が他の場所よりも富や権力を持つという不均等な発展を生み出すメカニズムに特に関心があります。

Like in Taiwan, which has had imperial and colonial-esque relationships a few times.

台湾のように、帝国や植民地的な関係が何度かあった。

Around 1624, the Dutch colonized the indigenous people of Taiwan and used Taiwan mainly as a shipping port to get goods out of Asia and back to Europe. They fought for control of the island with the indigenous people who were already there, using mostly subsistence agriculture, or small-scale agriculture for local use by families and communities, rather than for export.

1624年頃、オランダは台湾の先住民族を植民地化し、台湾を主にアジアからヨーロッパへ物資を運ぶための積出港として利用した。彼らはすでにそこにいた先住民族と島の支配権を争い、主に自給自足の農業、つまり輸出用ではなく家族や地域社会で使う小規模な農業を行った。

The Dutch version of colonization was pretty much just for Taiwan's strategic location for their shipping needs. But as the Qing dynasty took control of Taiwan in the 1680s, it was a more imperial relationship, at first mostly as a way to keep pirates from controlling key ports.

オランダによる植民地化は、台湾の戦略的な立地が彼らの海運の必要性を満たすためだった。しかし、1680年代に清朝が台湾を支配するようになると、当初は重要な港を支配する海賊を抑えるための方法として、より帝国的な関係になった。

Then, as Chinese refugees moved to the island due to political tensions in China, the new settlers began farming sugar and rice on a small scale and changing land ownership arrangements.

その後、中国の政治的緊張から中国人難民が島に移り住み、新しい入植者たちは小規模な砂糖や米の栽培を始め、土地の所有権も変わっていった。

For all intents and purposes, this was a settler-colonial relationship, meaning that people from China moved to the island to live and in doing so changed the cultural practices of the area. As Chinese people moved in, they negotiated and fought with the indigenous peoples as they tried to set up their own small rice and sugar farms, along with planning out towns. In some cases, indigenous peoples were able to claim ownership of the land and charge rents, but in others, the indigenous peoples quit subsistence farming to work on the sugar plantations or were forced to move their subsistence plots into more rugged territory. Then, by 1895, when Japan took control of Taiwan, Japan wanted Taiwan to move from a subsistence to an industrial level of rice and sugar production. They created restrictions on where people could live and farm that made it difficult to continue subsistence farming.

つまり、中国からやってきた人々がこの島に移り住み、その結果、この地域の文化的慣習が変わってしまったのだ。中国人が移住してくると、彼らは先住民族と交渉したり争ったりしながら、自分たちの小さな米や砂糖の農場を作り、町を計画した。先住民が土地の所有権を主張し、賃料を請求できた場合もあったが、自給自足の農業をやめて砂糖プランテーションで働くようになったり、自給自足の耕作地をより険しい土地に移さざるを得なくなったりした場合もあった。そして1895年、日本が台湾を支配下に置くと、日本は台湾を自給自足から米と砂糖の工業

People began to change what they grew and many had to work on plantations to make enough money.

人々は栽培するものを変え始め、多くの人々が十分な収入を得るためにプランテーションで働かなければならなくなった。

As the Japanese empire rose, Japan became less isolated and more open to European trade.

大日本帝国が勃興するにつれ、日本は孤立を解き、ヨーロッパ貿易に対してより開放的になっていった。

They were trying and succeeding to be an imperial force, one that was strong enough militarily and economically to avoid being colonized themselves. To create that strength,

自分たちが植民地化されるのを避けるために、軍事的にも経済的にも十分な強さを持つ帝国勢力になろうとしていたし、成功していた。その力を生み出すために、

Japan became an economic colonizing force, meaning they used land outside of their own territory to improve their economic resources. Taiwan became the source of primary goods like sugar and rice, and those goods mostly went to Japan. All of this extraction and separating of people from their land should have kept Taiwan from having much power in economic relationships with larger economies like China and Japan after World War II.

日本は経済的植民地化勢力となり、自国の領土外の土地を利用して経済資源を向上させた。台湾は砂糖や米のような一次産品の供給源となり、それらの商品はほとんど日本に渡った。第二次世界大戦後、台湾は中国や日本のような大国との経済関係で大きな力を持つことはなかったはずだ。

But at the end of the 1940s, China went through a civil war that led to communist rule, and prompted the U.S. and their allies to provide ample funding to set up strong, capitalist economies to reinforce and maintain a containment zone around Chinese communism.

しかし、1940年代末、中国は内戦を経て共産主義支配に至り、米国とその同盟国は、中国共産主義を囲む封じ込め地帯を強化・維持するために、強力な資本主義経済を立ち上げるために潤沢な資金を提供するようになった。

Today, Taiwan still acts as a shatterbelt between China and the West, meaning it's strategically located between two large powers, the U.S.'s allies and China.

つまり、台湾は米国の同盟国と中国という2つの大国の間に戦略的に位置しているのだ。

So by the 1980s, Taiwan was considered one of the Asian Tigers, which was a term used for Asian economies that experienced intense growth and industrialization after World War II. That's a lot of land-grabbing and economic movement, and all that just in this one island. Taiwan shows us that there are a host of motivations for one country to colonize another, and that the outcomes of colonization aren't uniform.

1980年代までに、台湾はアジアの虎（第二次世界大戦後に著しい成長と工業化を遂げたアジア経済圏を指す言葉）のひとつとみなされるようになった。この島ひとつをとってみても、土地の奪い合いや経済的な動きなど、実に多くのことが起こっている。台湾は、ある国が他国を植民地化する動機には様々なものがあり、植民地化の結果が一様ではないことを示している。

But a country is more than just its economy, and colonialism can shape the landscape in other ways too. Colonizers have been known to antagonize existing ethnic conflicts, or create new ones by promoting one group over another and making sure both groups know why, which ultimately meddles in both local politics and culture. This is what happened in what is now called Myanmar, which was most recently a part of the British Empire.

しかし、国とは経済以上のものであり、植民地主義は他の方法でも国土を形成する可能性がある。植民地支配者は、あるグループを他のグループより優遇し、その理由を両グループに分からせることで、既存の民族紛争を敵対させたり、新たな紛争を引き起こしたりすることが知られている。これは現在ミャンマーと呼ばれている国で起こったことで、直近では大英帝国の一部だった。

This can be as simple as how different groups are talked about and how language gets used to signal the good cultures. The messaging throughout Myanmar's colonial period about which groups were outsiders and which groups belonged set up foundations for ongoing conflicts between the peoples of this region. Usually, the so-called civilized, developed, and modern cultures are either the colonizers or the colonizers' preferred cultural group.

これは、異なる集団がどのように語られ、どのような言語が良い文化を示すために使われるかと同じくらい単純なことである。ミャンマーの植民地時代を通じて、どの集団が部外者で、どの集団が所属しているかというメッセージは、この地域の人々の間で現在も続く紛争の基礎を築いた。通常、いわゆる文明化された、発展した、近代的な文化は、植民地化した側か、植民地化した側が好む文化集団のどちらかである。

And derogatory language like uncivilized, primitive, or backward refers to the people being colonized or the more marginal groups. This coding of people and cultural traits as acceptable and unacceptable allows for the mistreatment, enslavement, and genocide of people.

また、未開、原始、後進といった蔑称は、植民地化された人々や、より周縁的な集団を指す。このように、人々や文化的特徴を許容できるものと許容できないものとしてコード化することで、人々の虐待、奴隷化、大量虐殺が可能になる。

And today, Myanmar is known for regular war and conflict between groups and an ongoing genocide as of late 2021. Both Myanmar and Taiwan are examples of how empires treat a peripheral territory. In the case of Taiwan, it was advantageous for the territory to build up a strong presence through a powerful economy. Because they have control over their own economy and are strong enough to negotiate favorable trade for themselves, they are not fully dependent on any one country. They are semi-periphery.

そして今日、ミャンマーは集団間の定期的な戦争と紛争で知られ、2021年末現在も大量虐殺が続いている。ミャンマーも台湾も、帝国が周辺領土をどのように扱うかの例である。台湾の場合、強力な経済力によって存在感を高めることが領土にとって有利だった。自国の経済を掌握し、自国に有利な貿易を交渉できるほど強いため、どの国にも完全には依存していない。半周辺国なのだ。

But in the case of Myanmar, it went through a type of colonization that politically divided different cultural groups, leaving the resulting state fractured. The British Empire united its own power through national pride and accumulating immense wealth, but destroyed local power through suppression of national cultural expression like languages and religions, changing local knowledge and education, and dismantling the existing economy. So in Myanmar and other former colonies, the long-term political consequences of colonization are bound up in the impact of how colonizers treated their cultural heritage and landscapes. In other parts of the world, settler colonialism like Taiwan experienced with the Qing dynasty often makes the largest impact on the cultural landscape. Settlers can use processes like forced migration, remaking place names, and other tactics that rewrite the landscape to signal that one culture is prioritized over other, already existing cultures. As North America also struggles to reconcile its history and present day settler colonial system with social calls for equality for black, indigenous, and other people of color, we can see the roots of those stereotypes and tensions going back to colonial language. So much of the world has spent time in one form of empire or colonial structure or another that we can also find the imprint of colonialism even in places that were never colonized.

しかし、ミャンマーの場合は、異なる文化集団を政治的に分断するような植民地化を経て、結果として国家が分断された。大英帝国は、民族の誇りと莫大な富の蓄積によって自らの権力を統一したが、言語や宗教といった民族の文化表現を抑圧し、現地の知識や教育を変え、既存の経済を解体することによって、現地の権力を破壊した。つまり、ミャンマーや他の旧植民地では、植民地化の長期的な政治的結果は、植民地支配者が文化遺産や景観をどのように扱ったかという影響と結びついているのだ。世界の他の地域では、台湾が清朝とともに経験したような入植者

Like in Thailand, which was never a colony despite being nestled between territories once part of

タイのように、かつてタイ領であったにもかかわらず、植民地であったことはない。

Mongolian, Japanese, and even European empires. But it still felt the pressure of those narratives that dictated what was a desirable culture. Now I'm going to use my psychic geography powers and guess that you have a Thai restaurant somewhere near you. Feeling pressure to fit in, the Thai government tried to both make their food seem palatable to non-Thai audiences, which would help them align with dominant cultures, and remain true to their cultural heritages. And by 2003, the Thai government invested millions providing loans to Thai citizens who wanted to create restaurants abroad. This furthers their cultural outreach and international goodwill. This is a form of culinary colonization, or pressure to change and conform the cultural trait of food for diplomatic reasons. While no one external leader or state required this change, the leaders of Thailand realized that if Thai people were going to control the narrative about their culture, they would have to get out ahead of the pressure to conform. Thailand crafted their own story and worked to ensure the world could see them in a favorable light before any other cultural group could decide what to privilege and what to silence about Thai cultural traits. Like food. So as cultural and human geographers, unraveling colonial influence is part of understanding the cultural landscape. And as economic and political geographers, being able to read the causes of unequal economic opportunity or political power is part of our work. But colonialism isn't a thing of the past. We still see the push and pull for control over resources in regions all over the world. And we'll begin to explore that relationship next time when we talk about development and the ways that countries measure their success on the global stage. Many maps and borders represent modern geopolitical divisions that have often been decided without the consultation, permission, or recognition of the land's original inhabitants. Many geographical place names also don't reflect the indigenous or aboriginal people's languages. So we at Crash Course want to acknowledge these people's traditional and ongoing relationship with that land and all the physical and human geographical elements of it. We encourage you to learn about the history of the place you call home through resources like NativeLand.ca and by engaging with your local indigenous and aboriginal nations through the websites and resources they provide. Thanks for watching this episode of Crash

モンゴル帝国、日本帝国、そしてヨーロッパ帝国でさえも。しかし、それでもなお、何が望ましい文化であるかを規定するそれらの物語の圧力を感じていた。さて、私の超能力を駆使して、あなたの近くにタイ料理レストランがあることを推測してみよう。タイに溶け込まなければならないというプレッシャーを感じながら、タイ政府は自分たちの料理をタイ人以外の人々にも食べやすいと思わせることで、支配的な文化に同調させるとともに、自分たちの文化遺産に忠実であり続けようとした。そして2003年までに、タイ政府は数百万ドルを投じて、海外でレス

Course Geography, which was filmed at the Team Sandoval Pierce Studio and was made with the help of all these nice people. If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.

チーム・サンドバル・ピアス・スタジオで撮影された「コース・ジオグラフィー」は、このような素敵な方々のご協力を得て制作されました。もしクラッシュ・コースが永遠に無料で提供され続けることを望むなら、Patreonで私たちのコミュニティーに参加することができます。