and we talked about the different parts of a neuron,

and I gave you the general idea what a neuron does.

It gets stimulated at the dendrites-- and the

stimulation we'll talk about in future videos on what

exactly that means-- and that that impulse, that

information, that signal gets added up.

If there's multiple stimulation points on various

dendrites, it gets added up and if it meets some threshold

level, it's going to create this action potential or

signal that travels across the axon and maybe stimulates

other neurons or muscles because these terminal points

of the axons might be connected to dendrites of

other neurons or to muscle cells or who knows what.

But what I want to do in this video is kind of lay the

building blocks for exactly what this signal is or how

does a neuron actually transmit this information

across the axon-- or really, how does it go from the

dendrite all the way to the axon?

Before I actually even talk about that, we need to kind of

lay the ground rules-- or a ground understanding of the

actual voltage potential across the

membrane of a neuron.

And, actually, all cells have some voltage potential

difference, but it's especially relevant when we

talk about a neuron and its ability to send signals.

Let's zoom in on a neuron's cell.

I could zoom in on any point on this cell that's not

covered by a myelin sheath.

I'm going to zoom in on its membrane.

So let's say that this is the membrane of the

neuron, just like that.

That's the membrane.

This is outside the neuron or the cell.

And then this is inside the neuron or the cell.

Now, you have sodium and potassium

ions floating around.

I'm going to draw sodium like this.

Sodium's going to be a circle.

So that's sodium and their positively charged ions have a

plus one charge and then potassium, I'll draw them as

little triangles.

So let's say that's potassium-- symbol for

potassium is K.

It's also positively charged.

And you have them just lying around.

Let's say we start off both inside and

outside of the cell.

They're all positively charged.

Sodium inside, some sodium outside.

Now it turns out that cells have more positive charge

outside of their membranes than

inside of their membranes.

So there's actually a potential difference that if

the membrane wasn't there, negative charges would want to

escape or positive charges or positive ions

would want to get in.

The outside ends up being more positive, and we're going to

talk about why.

So this is an electrical potential gradient, right?

If this is less positive than that-- if I have a positive

charge here, it's going to want to go to the less

positive side.

It's going to want to go away from the

other positive charges.

It's repelled by the other positive charges.

Likewise, if I had a negative charge here, it'd want to go

the other side-- or a positive charge, I guess, would be

happier being here than over here.

But the question is, how does that happen?

Because left to their own devices, the charges would

disperse so you wouldn't have this potential gradient.

Somehow we have to put energy into the system in order to

produce this state where we have more positive on the

charge of the outside than we do on the inside.

And that's done by sodium potassium pumps.

I'm going to draw then a certain way.

This is obviously not how the protein actually looks, but

it'll give you a sense of how it actually pumps things out.

I'll draw that side of the protein.

Maybe it looks like this and you'll have a sense of why I

drew it like this.

So that side of the protein or the enzyme-- and then the

other side, I'll draw it like this.

It looks something like this, and of course the real protein

doesn't look like this.

You've seen me show you what proteins really look like.

They look like big clusters of things, hugely complex.

Different parts of the proteins can bond to different

things and when things bond to proteins, they change shape.

But I'm doing a very simple diagram here and what I want

to show you is, this is our sodium potassium pump in its

inactivated state.

And what happens in this situation is that we have

these nice places where our sodium can bind to.

So in this situation, sodium can bind to these locations on

our enzyme or on our protein.

And if we just had the sodiums bind and we didn't have any

energy going into the system, nothing would happen.

It would just stay in this situation.

The actual protein might look like something crazy.

The actual protein might be this big cloud of protein and

then your sodiums bond there, there, and there.

Maybe it's inside the protein somehow, but still, nothing's

going to happen just when the sodium bonds on this side of

the protein.

In order for it to do anything, in order for it to

pump anything out, it uses the energy from ATP.

So we had all those videos on respiration and I told you

that ATP was the currency of energy in the cell-- well,

this is something useful for ATP to do.

ATP-- that's adenosine triphosphate-- it might go to

some other part of our enzyme, but in this diagram maybe it

goes to this part of the enzyme.

And this enzyme, it's a type of ATPase.

When I say ATPase, it breaks off a phosphate from the ATP--

and that's just by virtue of its shape.

It's able to plunk it off.

When it plunks off the phosphate, it changes shape.

So step one, we have sodium ions-- and actually, let's

keep count of them.

We have three sodium-- these are the actual ratios-- three

sodium ions from inside the cell or the neuron.

They bond to pump, which is really a protein that crosses

our membrane.

Now, step two, we have also ATP.

ATP gets broken into ATP plus phosphate on the actual

protein and that changes the shape.

So that also provides energy to change pump's shape.

Now this is when the pump was before.

Now after, our pump might look something like this.

Let me clear out some space right here.

I'll draw the after pump right there.

And so this is before.

After the phosphate gets split off of the ATP, it might look

something like this.

Instead of being in that configuration, it opens in the

other direction.

So now it might look something like this.

And of course it's carrying these phosphate groups.

They have a positive charge.

It's open like this.

This side now looks like this.

So now the phosphates are released to the outside.

So they've been pumped to the outside.

Remember, this is required energy because it's going

against the natural gradient.

You're taking positive charge and you're pushing them to an

environment that is even more positive and you're also

taking it to an environment where there's already a lot of

sodium, and you're putting more sodium there.

So you're going against the charge gradient and you're

going against the sodium gradient.

But now-- I guess we call it step three-- the sodium gets

released outside the cell.

And when this changes shape, it's not so good at bonding

with the sodium anymore.

So maybe these can become a little bit different too, so

that the sodium can't even bond in this configuration now

that the protein has changed shape due to the ATP.

So step three, the three Na plusses, sodium ions-- are

released outside.

Now once it's in this configuration, we have all

these positive ions out here.

These positive ions want to get really as far away from

each other as possible.

They'd actually probably be attracted to the cell itself

because the cell is less positive on the inside.

So these positive ions-- and in particular, the potassium--

can bond this side of the protein when it's in this-- I

guess we could call it this activated configuration.

So now, I guess we could call it step four.

We have two sodium ions bond to-- I guess we could call it

the activated pump-- or changed pump.

Or maybe we could say it's in its open form.

So they come here and when they bond, it re-changes the

shape of this protein back to this shape, back

to that open shape.

Now when it goes back to the open shape, these guys aren't

here anymore, but we have these two guys sitting here

and in this shape right here, all of a sudden these divots--

maybe they're not divots.

They're actually things in this big cluster of protein.

They're not as good at staying bonded or holding onto these

sodiums so these sodiums get released into the cell.

So step five, the pump-- this changes shape of pump.

So pump changes shape to original.

And then once we're in the original, those two sodium

ions released inside the cell.

We're going to see in the next few videos why it's useful to

have those sodium ions on the inside.

You might say, well, why don't we just keep pumping things on

the outside in order to have a potential difference?

But we'll see these sodium ions are

actually also very useful.

So what's the net effect that's going on?

We end up with a lot more sodium ions on the outside and

we end up with more potassium ions on the inside, but I told

you that the inside is less positive than the outside.

But these are both positive.

I don't care if I have more potassium or sodium, but if

you paid attention to the ratios I talked about, every

time we use an ATP, we're pumping out three sodiums and

we're only pumping in two potassiums, right?

We pumped out three sodiums and two potassiums. Each of

them have a plus-1 charge, but every time we do this, we're

adding a net-1 charge to the outside, right?

3 on the outside, 2 to the inside.

We have a net-1 charge-- we have a plus-1 to the outside.

So we're making the outside more positive, especially

relative to the inside.

And this is what creates that potential difference.

If you actually took a voltmeter-- a voltmeter

measures electrical potential difference-- and you took the

voltage difference between that point and this point-- or

more specifically, between this point and that point, if

you were to subtract the voltage here from the voltage

there, you will get -70 millivolts, which is generally

considered the resting voltage difference, the potential

difference across the membrane of a neuron when it's in its

resting state.

So in this video, I kind of laid out the foundation of why

and how a cell using ATP, using energy, is able to

maintain a potential difference across its membrane

where the outside is slightly more positive than the inside.

So we actually have a negative potential difference if we're

comparing the inside to the outside.

Positive charge would want to move in if they were allowed

to, and negative charge would want to move out if it was

allowed to.

Now there might be one last question.

You might say, well, if we just kept adding charge out

here, our voltage difference would get really negative.

This would be much more negative than the outside.

Why does it stabilize at -70?