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  • Even though you can't see me, you know that I am here talking to you. And I can probably

  • persuade you that this container of water and this container of water have the same

  • amount of water, which they do, even though they don't look like they do.

  • And you'll see I left my anglerfish behind me. If someone were to move it without my

  • knowing, you'd rightly expect me to look for it first where I originally left it.

  • ...Nnnugh!!

  • You can figure out all these things because you are far down the path of cognitive development.

  • Your parents will be proud. But there was a time in your life, in all our lives, when

  • simple concepts like these were totally baffling.

  • Of course, lots of things influence how your mind and its relationship with the world grows

  • over time.

  • Both our genetics and our environment begin to affect our development long before we're

  • even born, and they continue to influence our learning until the day we die.

  • And even though we're born with nearly the same number of brain cells we'll ever have,

  • our complete set of brain hardware takes years to solidify as our neural networks grow more

  • complex.

  • The study of our physical changes, cognitive, social and emotional changes throughout our

  • whole lives - from prenatal to preteen to post-retirement - is called developmental

  • psychology. It's how we grow into who we are.

  • And it begins with the growth of knowledge itself: the process by which you mature into

  • the anglerfish-tracking water-beaker-estimating peekaboo-master that you are today.

  • [Intro]

  • As we age, we tend to follow a sequence of changes in behavior and appearance called

  • maturation. Everyone is affected differently by their personal experience, of course, but

  • we all share inherent genetic growth tendencies.

  • We roll over before we sit, we sit before stand, and we stand before we walk, and we

  • walk before we break dance. The same thing applies to our cognitive development - how

  • we learn to think, know, remember and communicate. And if you're gonna talk about cognitive development,

  • you gotta start with Jean Piaget, developmental psychologist extraordinaire.

  • Piaget was from Switzerland where he was kind of a wunderkind and got his PhD in zoology

  • in 1918, began dabbling in Freud psychoanalysis. After graduation, he headed to France to work

  • on a method for testing children's aptitudes and abilities. While administering these tests,

  • Piaget began to notice how younger kids kept giving wrong answers to certain questions.

  • He became fascinated by the fact that children of a certain age consistently made particular

  • mistakes that older kids and adults didn't. Like the younger kids would have a really

  • hard time understanding the idea I just showed you, that this container has the same amount

  • of water in it as in this container. Or that this row of coins has the same number as this

  • row.

  • While others might have dismissed these as childish mistakes, Piaget theorized that it

  • was because humans go through specific stages of cognitive development and intellectual

  • progression. His main game was asking 'How does knowledge grow?'

  • He proposed that as we grow and struggle to make sense of our experiences, we create schemas,

  • or mental frameworks that help interpret information.

  • Schemas are like concepts, ranging from physical things like birds and hats and eye patches

  • to abstract ideas like friendship and betrayal.

  • And we're constantly striving for cognitive equilibrium, or harmony, between our thought

  • processes and our environments, which are always giving us new things to think about

  • and adjust to.

  • Piaget proposed that we adapt to new experiences through two processes that are closely related

  • - assimilation and accommodation.

  • When we assimilate new experiences, we interpret them in terms of our existing schemas. So

  • if a toddler has never seen a deer but has a schema for a horse, she may call the first

  • deer she sees a horsey. She wants to fit it within her understanding.

  • But with more interactions in the world, our minds expand to accommodate, or adjust to

  • new experiences. So soon enough, that kid realizes that deer aren't just horses, and

  • she adjusts her schema. From there, she'll be able to tell the difference between Bambi

  • and Black Beauty in no time.

  • But our knowledge base grows in ways that are much more complex than just those two

  • steps, and Piaget knew that. He went on to devise a four-stage theory of cognitive development

  • that described how we learn in different phases of our lives.

  • He called stage one the sensorimotor stage, which begins at birth and continues on to

  • about age two. This is the time when babies experience the world through their senses

  • and actions. Touching and grabbing and looking and hearing. And putting things in their mouth.

  • From what I can tell, mostly just putting things in their mouth.

  • Younger babies may get scared around strangers, seem to live only in the present, and have

  • to see something to know it exists. This makes them very easy to trick, if you're into that

  • - I mean if you have any experience with babies, just think about this: toss a blanket over

  • a six-month-old's pacifier and they think it vanished.

  • They lack object permanence, the awareness that things still exist when they're out of

  • sight. And yet, we develop so quickly that just a month or two later that baby already

  • understands better that objects and people don't disappear just because they're hidden.

  • Object permanence, in Piaget's view, was one of the major achievements of the sensorimotor

  • stage.

  • The second of Piaget's phases of development is the 'preoperational stage' and he believed

  • it began around age two, and carried on through age six or seven. The thing about kids of

  • this age is that it's all about them. The preoperational stage is characterized by 'egocentrism'

  • which drives most of what a child thinks and says.

  • Kids have a hard time imagining another person's point of view, so much so that when I was

  • a kid, if you asked me if I had a brother, I'd say, 'sure, John', but if you asked me

  • if John had a brother I'd say, 'Nah, I don't think so.'

  • Egocentrism of course never fully disappears, even in adults who understand how the whole

  • sibling thing works.

  • The preoperational stage is also marked by a child's ability to mentally represent objects

  • and events with words and images and pretend plays in their imagination. They're big into

  • animism now, and believe their favorite bunny, batman or stuffed anglerfish has feelings

  • and opinions and possibly the intent to kiss or kill you when you're asleep - depending

  • on how they're feeling.

  • Still plenty of kinks to work out.

  • Piaget suggests that early in this stage, kids don't yet understand the concept of conservation

  • - like how 500 milliliters is the same as 500 milliliters, no matter what container

  • it's in.

  • They can also struggle with the notion of reversibility. It's hard for them to mentally

  • reverse the process by which a ball of clay smashed flat can be rolled back into a ball.

  • It's a concept that takes some time to understand.

  • And these challenges both have to do with 'Centration' - a child's tendency to fixate

  • on just one aspect of a problem or object - like the shape of the container or the clay.

  • But during the second half of stage two, things begin to blossom. Kids start forming their

  • theory of mind or ability to understand other people's feelings, thoughts and perceptions-

  • as well as their own- and also how to predict behavior... like remember when my anglerfish

  • got moved when I wasn't looking? A child at this stage will begin to realize that while

  • she knows that the fish is in a new place, I don't know it was moved, so when I start

  • to look for it, she'll expect me to look where it originally was and not where it was moved

  • to.

  • These new people skills have all kinds of awesome applications from trying to convince

  • your parents to "PLEASE GIVE ME THAT EXTRA COOKIE I SO DESPERATELY NEED!" to showing

  • empathy, which is better - and offering comfort to others when they seem sad.

  • Piaget called the third stage of development - beginning around age six or seven and lasting

  • until eleven or twelve - the 'Concrete Operational Stage'. Kids are starting to think logically

  • about concrete events that they've actually experienced. And unlike children in the earlier

  • phase, getting hung up on issues of centration, kids in this stage experience 'decentration',

  • and become able to see beyond just one aspect of an object or problem.

  • So now, problems with reversibility and conservation just cease to be problems. And the last of

  • Piaget's four stages is the 'Formal Operational Stage' which starts at about twelve and carries

  • us through the rest of our lives. By now, our reasoning is expanding to include more

  • abstract thinking, problem solving and hypothetical questions.

  • Now Piaget's four-stage model has been criticized for over-simplifying things and for being

  • too rigid in how it classifies certain abilities by age. Today, for example, researchers have

  • detected these phases at earlier ages than Piaget ever did - sometimes way earlier - like

  • some types of object permanence have been observed in three-month-olds.

  • Psychologists also see development as more of a continuous process rather than a series

  • of stepping stones. But even Piaget understood that his stages weren't as fixed as he made

  • them sound.

  • And he wasn't the only guy on the block talking about development. For instance, his contemporary,

  • Belarussian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, had some ideas of his own. While Piaget focused

  • on how a kid's mind grows by interacting with his physical environment, Vygotsky emphasized

  • how early development occurs through parental instruction and interaction with social environments.

  • He believed less in set stages and more in the idea that care-giver adults provide a

  • sort of scaffolding, that helps children climb to higher levels of thinking and learning.

  • Vgotsky put a lot of emphasis on language as a way of assigning meaning to things, and

  • he also suggested that the ways kids develop might actually vary across cultures.

  • In the end, there's room for lots of different theories here, but perhaps Piaget's greatest

  • achievement was developing theoretical depth in the concept that kids actually think very

  • differently than adults.

  • This fact has helped a lot of parents and teachers, and his work spurred a new era of

  • research in the field. While Piaget wasn't the only developmentalist, or even the first,

  • he's definitely one of the most influential, and remains relevant to this day.

  • As the brain and mind develop in children, so too do their social, emotional, and moral

  • behavior. How a child is raised and cared for can have a profound impact on their personality

  • later in life, which is something we'll look at next week.

  • This week, though, you learned how we use schemas, assimilation, and accommodation to

  • make sense of the world around us, and about Piaget's four-stage theory of cognitive development,

  • including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational periods,

  • and about Vgotsky's theory of scaffolding.

  • Thanks for watching, especially to all of our Subbable subscribers - you are the reason

  • that we can do this, thank you. If you would like to sponsor an episode of Crash Course,

  • or even be animated into an upcoming episode, just go to subbable.com.

  • This episode was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant

  • is Dr. Ranjit Bhagwat. Our director and editor is Nicholas Jenkins, the script supervisor

  • is Michael Aranda who is also our sound designer, and the graphics team is Thought Cafe.

Even though you can't see me, you know that I am here talking to you. And I can probably

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知識の成長。クラッシュコース心理学#18 (The Growth of Knowledge: Crash Course Psychology #18)

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    Hhart Budha に公開 2021 年 01 月 14 日
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